{"id":10881,"date":"2024-12-01T17:22:06","date_gmt":"2024-12-01T17:22:06","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/actualites\/la-fabrique-des-innovations-den-bas-dans-les-services-urbains-deau-des-quartiers-precaires-de-ouagadougou-etudes-de-cas-a-goundrin-et-a-boassa\/"},"modified":"2025-11-22T13:57:48","modified_gmt":"2025-11-22T13:57:48","slug":"la-fabrique-des-innovations-den-bas-dans-les-services-urbains-deau-des-quartiers-precaires-de-ouagadougou-etudes-de-cas-a-goundrin-et-a-boassa","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/la-fabrique-des-innovations-den-bas-dans-les-services-urbains-deau-des-quartiers-precaires-de-ouagadougou-etudes-de-cas-a-goundrin-et-a-boassa\/","title":{"rendered":"La fabrique des innovations d\u2019en bas dans les services urbains d\u2019eau des quartiers pr\u00e9caires de Ouagadougou \u00c9tudes de cas \u00e0 Goundrin et \u00e0 Boassa"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div 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data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Num\u00e9ro 06 - Analyses critiques<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-62d8bc1 elementor-author-box--link-yes ignoretoc elementor-author-box--avatar-yes elementor-author-box--name-yes elementor-widget elementor-widget-author-box\" data-id=\"62d8bc1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"author-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-author-box\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/author\/mairama-tamboura-fr\/\" class=\"elementor-author-box__avatar\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura-.webp\" alt=\"Image de Ma\u00eframa Tamboura\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-author-box__text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/author\/mairama-tamboura-fr\/\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-author-box__name\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMa\u00eframa Tamboura\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-author-box__button elementor-button elementor-size-xs\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/author\/mairama-tamboura-fr\/\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTous les articles de l'auteur\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6592333 ignoretoc elementor-widget elementor-widget-author-box\" data-id=\"6592333\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"author-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div 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innovation<\/a><\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b2b07a4 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b2b07a4\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Publi\u00e9 le : 20 juin 2024 <\/strong><br><strong>ISSN: 3020-0458<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-38d84bf elementor-align-center elementor-widget__width-inherit elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"38d84bf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" 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                                    <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg\" alt=\"\">\n                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Abstract<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"rsum\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"rsum-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Flag_of_France.svg\" alt=\"\">\n                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >R\u00e9sum\u00e9<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"muhtasari\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"muhtasari-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Flag_of_Kenya.svg\" alt=\"\">\n                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Muhtasari<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                       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25.985l680.71-0.4178c-7.7852 5.6044-11.868 13.788-10.769 22.066 0.8064 6.0585 7.6533 10.374 15.307 9.6263 7.6459-0.7472 13.195-6.2637 12.396-12.33l-0.3079-2.3223h40.004c0.7037 3.9048 4.6037 6.9011 9.354 6.9011s8.6502-2.9963 9.3613-6.9011h40.693v-0.095c8.4963 6.0294 19.294 9.4946 30.716 9.4946 10.747 0 19.456-7.4652 19.456-16.681v-4.8205c0-16.842-15.922-30.506-35.569-30.506\" fill=\"#fff\"><\/path><\/g><\/svg>                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >\u0645\u0644\u062e\u0635<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                    \n                                  <\/ul>\n            <\/div>\n            \n            <div class=\"eael-tabs-content\">\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"abstract-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item active-default\" data-title-link=\"abstract-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <p class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Research into the supply of drinking water in urban areas in the Global South has focused on inequalities of access in precarious neighborhoods. The explanatory factors put forward refer to the technical deficiencies of the centralized water network (leakage rate, continuity of service, lack of financial and human resources to maintain infrastructures, etc.) as well as to what is considered to be poor governance. Faced with the limitations of the conventional model, local innovations, initiated by various types of stakeholders (individuals, groups), have emerged outside of the centralized network, hence the term \u00ab\u00a0off-grid\u00a0\u00bb. Long regarded as transitory, do-it-yourself solutions, they are now attracting particular attention and questioning the relevance of the single centralized network model that has been promoted internationally. To what extent can we speak of innovations? While the emphasis is once again put on technical aspects (mini-networks, adaptability of infrastructures to the structure of precarious neighborhoods, etc.) and decentralized modes of governance (proximity, delegation to local operators or associations, pricing adapted to the context, etc.), there are few works that question local dynamics, particularly bottom-up innovations, beyond these technical and regulatory dimensions. In order to present these dynamics of change from a different angle, we have analyzed innovatives experiences in the precarious neighborhoods of Goundrin and Boassa in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), based on qualitative surveys and case studies. First and foremost, our article identifies the plurality of meanings conferred to the term \u00ab\u00a0innovation\u00a0\u00bb as applied to the drinking water sector, thus highlighting the complexity of the processes involved, and this beyond the technical and governance dimensions. In addition, we discuss the endogenous dimension of these bottom-up innovations, questioning their interactions with donor-funded projects from above concerning access to water in precarious neighborhoods in African cities. Then, we analyze two case studies, the Goundrin and Boassa neighborhoods, to explain the conditions of emergence of these innovations carried out by \u00ab\u00a0contextual experts\u00a0\u00bb from these neighborhoods and motivated by logics of commitment. These are Y.O., an individual informal operator, and the Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 association, which are helping to improve access to water services by setting up residents\u2019 collectives, mini-water networks, day-to-day do-it-yourself projects and different operating methods. While the commitment of these stakeholders is initially based on a logic of action on a local scale, the spread of these innovations generates unforeseen events that can result in a shift from a logic of cooperation and solidarity to one of competition and profitability. Would institutionalization be a guarantee of the preservation of collective action logics with the aim of achieving social and territorial justice? This article makes an original contribution to the literature on the \u00ab\u00a0off-grid\u00a0\u00bb, which has developed strongly in water services studies in recent years.              <\/p>\n<h5 class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Keywords <\/h5>\n<p class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Bottom-up innovation, contextual expert, urban water services, decentralized systems \u2013 off-grid, Ouagadougou<\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"rsum-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"rsum-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <p class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Les recherches conduites sur la fourniture d\u2019eau potable en milieu urbain dans le Sud global mettent surtout l\u2019accent sur les in\u00e9galit\u00e9s d\u2019acc\u00e8s dans les quartiers pr\u00e9caires. Les facteurs explicatifs avanc\u00e9s renvoient aux d\u00e9ficiences techniques du r\u00e9seau d\u2019eau centralis\u00e9 (taux de fuite, continuit\u00e9 du service, manque de moyens financiers et humains pour entretenir les infrastructures, etc.) ainsi qu\u2019\u00e0 une gouvernance consid\u00e9r\u00e9e comme d\u00e9ficiente. Face aux limites du mod\u00e8le conventionnel, des innovations locales, \u00e0 l\u2019initiative de diff\u00e9rents types d\u2019acteurs (individuels, collectifs), ont \u00e9merg\u00e9 en dehors du r\u00e9seau centralis\u00e9 d\u2019o\u00f9 le qualificatif de off-grid. Longtemps consid\u00e9r\u00e9es comme des solutions transitoires, comme du bricolage, elles font aujourd\u2019hui l\u2019objet d\u2019une attention particuli\u00e8re et questionnent la pertinence du mod\u00e8le unique de r\u00e9seau centralis\u00e9 qui a \u00e9t\u00e9 v\u00e9hicul\u00e9 internationalement. Dans quelle mesure peut-on parler d\u2019innovations ? Alors que l\u2019accent est \u00e0 nouveau mis sur les dimensions techniques (mini-r\u00e9seaux, adaptabilit\u00e9 des infrastructures \u00e0 la structuration des quartiers pr\u00e9caires, etc.) et les modes de gouvernance, d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s (proximit\u00e9, d\u00e9l\u00e9gation \u00e0 des op\u00e9rateurs locaux ou \u00e0 des associations, modalit\u00e9s de tarification adapt\u00e9es au contexte, etc.), rares sont les travaux qui interrogent les dynamiques locales, notamment les innovations d\u2019en bas, au-del\u00e0 de ces dimensions techniques et de r\u00e9gulation. Afin de pr\u00e9senter sous un autre angle ces dynamiques de changement, nous avons analys\u00e9 des exp\u00e9riences innovantes \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle des quartiers pr\u00e9caires de Goundrin et de Boassa \u00e0 Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) \u00e0 partir d\u2019enqu\u00eates qualitatives et d\u2019\u00e9tudes de cas. Notre article identifie tout d\u2019abord la pluralit\u00e9 des sens conf\u00e9r\u00e9s au terme \u00ab innovation \u00bb appliqu\u00e9 au secteur de l\u2019eau potable, ce qui permet de mettre en \u00e9vidence la complexit\u00e9 des processus en jeu, au-del\u00e0 des dimensions techniques et de gouvernance. Par ailleurs, nous discutons la dimension endog\u00e8ne de ces innovations d\u2019en bas, en questionnant leurs interactions avec des projets d\u2019en haut financ\u00e9s par des bailleurs et portant sur l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau dans les quartiers pr\u00e9caires des villes africaines. Nous analysons ensuite deux \u00e9tudes de cas, les quartiers de Goundrin et de Boassa, pour expliciter les conditions d\u2019\u00e9mergence de ces innovations port\u00e9es par des \u00ab experts contextuels \u00bb issus de ces quartiers et motiv\u00e9s par des logiques d\u2019engagement. Il s\u2019agit de Y.O., un op\u00e9rateur informel individuel, et de l\u2019association Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 qui, par la mise en place de collectifs d\u2019habitants, de mini-r\u00e9seaux d\u2019eau, des bricolages au quotidien et des modes op\u00e9ratoires diff\u00e9rents, contribuent \u00e0 l\u2019am\u00e9lioration de l\u2019acc\u00e8s aux services d\u2019eau. Si l\u2019engagement de ces acteurs se situe au d\u00e9part dans une logique d\u2019action \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle locale, la diffusion de ces innovations engendre des impr\u00e9vus qui peuvent se traduire par le passage de logiques de coop\u00e9ration et de solidarit\u00e9 vers des logiques de concurrence et de rentabilit\u00e9. L\u2019institutionnalisation serait-elle une garantie de pr\u00e9servation des logiques d\u2019action collective avec pour finalit\u00e9 une justice sociale et territoriale ? Cet article contribue donc, de mani\u00e8re originale, \u00e0 la litt\u00e9rature sur le \u00ab hors r\u00e9seau \u00bb (off-grid) qui s\u2019est fortement d\u00e9velopp\u00e9e dans les \u00e9tudes sur les services d\u2019eau ces derni\u00e8res ann\u00e9es.              <\/p>\n<h5 class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Mots-cl\u00e9s <\/h5>\n<p class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Innovation d\u2019en bas, expert contextuel, services urbains d\u2019eau, syst\u00e8mes d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s \u2013 off-grid, Ouagadougou<\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"muhtasari-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"muhtasari-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <p class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Utafiti uliofanywa kuhusu utoaji wa maji ya kunywa katika maeneo ya mijini katika Ukanda wa Kusini mwa Dunia unaweka msisitizo hasa katika kukosekana kwa usawa wa upatikanaji katika vitongoji hatarishi. Sababu za ufafanuzi zinazotolewa zinarejelea mapungufu ya kiufundi ya mtandao wa maji ulio katikati (kiwango cha uvujaji, kuendelea kwa huduma, ukosefu wa rasilimali fedha na watu wa kutunza miundombinu, n.k.) pamoja na utawala unaoonekana kuwa duni. Inakabiliwa na mipaka ya mfano wa kawaida, ubunifu wa ndani, ulioanzishwa na aina tofauti za watendaji (mtu binafsi, wa pamoja), wamejitokeza nje ya mtandao wa kati, kwa hiyo neno la off-grid. Kwa muda mrefu zinazozingatiwa kama suluhu za mpito, kama DIY, leo ndizo zinazozingatiwa sana na zinahoji umuhimu wa muundo mmoja wa mtandao wa kati ambao umewasilishwa kimataifa. Ni kwa kiwango gani tunaweza kuzungumza juu ya uvumbuzi? Ingawa msisitizo umewekwa tena kwenye vipimo vya kiufundi (mitandao midogo, ubadilikaji wa miundomsingi kwa uundaji wa vitongoji hatarishi, n.k.) na njia za ugatuzi za utawala (ukaribu, uwakilishi kwa waendeshaji au vyama vya ndani, bei iliyorekebishwa kulingana na muktadha, n.k.), kuna kazi chache zinazotilia shaka mienendo ya ndani, hasa ubunifu kutoka chini, zaidi ya vipimo hivi vya kiufundi na udhibiti. Ili kuwasilisha mienendo hii ya mabadiliko kutoka kwa pembe nyingine, tulichanganua uzoefu wa ubunifu katika kiwango cha vitongoji hatarishi vya Goundrin na Boassa huko Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) kulingana na tafiti za ubora na tafiti kifani. Kifungu chetu kwanza kinabainisha wingi wa maana zinazotolewa kwa neno \u00ab\u00a0ubunifu\u00a0\u00bb linalotumika kwa sekta ya maji ya kunywa, ambayo inafanya uwezekano wa kuangazia ugumu wa michakato inayohusika, zaidi ya vipimo vya kiufundi na utawala. Zaidi ya hayo, tunajadili mwelekeo asilia wa ubunifu huu kutoka chini, kwa kutilia shaka mwingiliano wao na miradi kutoka juu inayofadhiliwa na wafadhili na inayohusiana na upatikanaji wa maji katika vitongoji hatarishi vya miji ya Afrika. Kisha tunachambua tafiti mbili za kifani, wilaya za Goundrin na Boassa, ili kuelezea masharti ya kuibuka kwa ubunifu huu unaofanywa na \u00ab\u00a0wataalam wa mazingira\u00a0\u00bb kutoka kwa wilaya hizi na kuhamasishwa na mantiki ya kujitolea. Hawa ni Y.O., mwendeshaji binafsi asiye rasmi, na chama cha Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 ambacho, kupitia uanzishwaji wa vikundi vya wakaazi, mitandao ya maji kidogo, DIY ya kila siku na mbinu tofauti za uendeshaji, huchangia katika kuboresha upatikanaji wa huduma za maji. Ikiwa dhamira ya wahusika hawa hapo awali iko katika mantiki ya vitendo katika kiwango cha ndani, uenezaji wa ubunifu huu huzalisha matukio yasiyotarajiwa ambayo yanaweza kusababisha mabadiliko kutoka kwa mantiki ya ushirikiano na mshikamano kuelekea mantiki ya ushindani na faida. Je, kuasisi kungekuwa hakikisho la kuhifadhi mantiki ya hatua za pamoja kwa lengo la haki ya kijamii na kimaeneo? Kwa hiyo makala hii inachangia, kwa njia ya awali, kwa maandiko juu ya \u00ab\u00a0off-grid\u00a0\u00bb ambayo imeendelea sana katika masomo juu ya huduma za maji katika miaka ya hivi karibuni.              <\/p>\n<h5 class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Maneno muhimu <\/h5>\n<p class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">Ubunifu kutoka chini, mtaalam wa mazingira, huduma za maji mijini, mifumo ya ugatuzi &#8211; off-grid, Ouagadougou<\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <div id=\"bgLayers_comp-lxg4xjti3\" class=\"MW5IWV\">\n<div id=\"bgMedia_comp-lxg4xjti3\" class=\"VgO9Yg\"> <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"\">\n<div>\n<div id=\"comp-lxg4xjtk__a3490982-3ac6-47f7-b0fb-5f4e0873b139\" class=\"HcOXKn c9GqVL QxJLC3 lq2cno comp-lxg4xjtk wixui-rich-text\">\n<p class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\">\u0625\u0646\u0651 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wixui-rich-text__text\">\u0627\u0644\u0643\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0627\u062a\u064a\u062d <\/h5>\n<p class=\"font_8 wixui-rich-text__text\"> \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u062a\u062d\u062a- \u062e\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0628\u0641\u0631\u0632\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0641 [\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0644\u0651\u064a] &#8211; \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062f\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0631\u064a\u0651\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0648\u0651\u062f \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0621- \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0627 \u0645\u0631\u0643\u0632\u064a\u0651 \u2013 \u062e\u0627\u0631\u062c \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0628\u0643\u0629 (Off-grid)- \u0648\u063a\u0627\u062f\u0648\u063a\u0648<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t                    <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2f23bad elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"2f23bad\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Introduction<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ff89d56 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ff89d56\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">L\u2019eau est un \u00e9l\u00e9ment indispensable pour tout organisme vivant et pour la survie des \u00e9cosyst\u00e8mes dont l\u2019homme est partie int\u00e9grante. Elle conditionne le d\u00e9veloppement socio-\u00e9conomique et territorial, et participe \u00e0 la fabrique urbaine (Rosillon, 2016). En Afrique Subsaharienne, 400 millions de personnes n\u2019ont toujours pas acc\u00e8s aux services d\u2019eau et la plupart habitent dans des espaces p\u00e9riurbains sans statut juridique (ONU-Eau, 2022). Ainsi, les villes africaines sont confront\u00e9es depuis des d\u00e9cennies \u00e0 de nombreux d\u00e9fis li\u00e9s aux difficult\u00e9s d\u2019approvisionnement et d\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 une eau potable du fait de la forte croissance urbaine. Cette croissance s\u2019accompagne d\u2019une pr\u00e9carisation des populations et d\u2019un \u00e9talement urbain qui rend difficile l\u2019extension des r\u00e9seaux. Par ailleurs, les ressources en eau s\u2019amenuisent avec la crise climatique qui touche les pays soudano-sah\u00e9liens.     &nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-o2nrt2277\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">La m\u00e9tropole de Ouagadougou n\u2019\u00e9chappe pas \u00e0 cette r\u00e9alit\u00e9. Selon l\u2019INSD (2022), la population de la capitale est de 2 415 226 habitants dont 40 % r\u00e9sident en zones non loties1 , occupant 27 % de l\u2019espace urbain. Face \u00e0 cette situation, comment assurer l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau aux m\u00e9nages des quartiers pr\u00e9caires via le mod\u00e8le centralis\u00e9 conventionnel ? Cette question est largement discut\u00e9e dans la litt\u00e9rature, en mettant l\u2019accent sur les dysfonctionnements du service (Baron &amp; Bonnassieux, 2021 ; Jaglin, 2012; Kouiy\u00e9, 2020). Les facteurs explicatifs avanc\u00e9s renvoient aux d\u00e9ficiences techniques du r\u00e9seau (fuites, continuit\u00e9 du service, manque de moyens financiers et humains pour entretenir les infrastructures, etc.) ainsi qu\u2019\u00e0 une gouvernance consid\u00e9r\u00e9e comme d\u00e9ficiente, et plus rarement \u00e0 des facteurs \u00e9cologiques. Face \u00e0 ces limites qui impactent les m\u00e9nages pr\u00e9caires, des initiatives se sont d\u00e9velopp\u00e9es, en marge du r\u00e9seau centralis\u00e9 d\u2019o\u00f9 le qualificatif de \u00ab <i>off-grid<\/i> \u00bb (Misra &amp; Kingdom, 2019), pour assurer l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau dans des quartiers d\u00e9laiss\u00e9s par les politiques publiques. Longtemps consid\u00e9r\u00e9es comme des solutions transitoires, du bricolage, ces initiatives font aujourd\u2019hui l\u2019objet d\u2019une attention particuli\u00e8re et questionnent la pertinence du mod\u00e8le unique de r\u00e9seau centralis\u00e9 v\u00e9hicul\u00e9 \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle internationale. Dans quelle mesure peut-on parler d\u2019innovations et comment les qualifier ? Alors que l\u2019accent est \u00e0 nouveau mis sur les dimensions techniques (mini-r\u00e9seaux, adaptabilit\u00e9 des infrastructures \u00e0 la structuration des quartiers pr\u00e9caires, etc.) et sur les modes de gouvernance d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s (proximit\u00e9, d\u00e9l\u00e9gation \u00e0 des op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s locaux, recouvrement adapt\u00e9, etc.), rares sont les travaux qui interrogent ces dynamiques locales du point de vue des \u00ab innovations d\u2019en bas \u00bb. Le terme \u00ab d\u2019en bas \u00bb est utilis\u00e9 pour se d\u00e9marquer des innovations \u00ab d\u2019en haut \u00bb con\u00e7ues et diffus\u00e9es par les institutions internationales dans le cadre de r\u00e9formes institutionnelles qu\u2019elles ont appuy\u00e9es (Lavigne Delville &amp; Schlimmer, 2020). Afin d\u2019aborder ces dynamiques sous un angle original, nous avons analys\u00e9 des exp\u00e9riences d\u2019en bas innovantes, des micro-dynamiques locales (Ndongo &amp; Klein, 2020), \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle des quartiers pr\u00e9caires de Goundrin et Boassa \u00e0 Ouagadougou, \u00e0 partir d\u2019enqu\u00eates qualitatives. En effet, en marge du syst\u00e8me d\u2019eau conventionnel, centralis\u00e9, il existe des initiatives \u00abendog\u00e8nes\u00bb assurant la fourniture d\u2019eau. Ces initiatives, dont certaines sont des innovations d\u2019en bas, traduisent l\u2019existence de savoirs endog\u00e8nes du \u00ab monde d\u2019en bas \u00bb (Ela, 1998, p. 24), adopt\u00e9es et mises en \u0153uvre par des acteurs comptant quotidiennement sur leurs \u00ab propres forces \u00bb (Olivier de Sardan, 2022) pour \u00ab exp\u00e9rimenter, bidouiller, bricoler, fabriquer et innover \u00bb (Dauphin, 2012 ; Ambrosino et al., 2017). Ces \u00ab experts contextuels \u00bb (Olivier de Sardan, 2022) peuvent \u00eatre de petits entrepreneurs priv\u00e9s ou des acteurs du monde associatif, formels ou informels, qui s\u2019adaptent aux modes de vie du monde r\u00e9el des quartiers pr\u00e9caires.                      <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-kfz622281\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">L\u2019article explore tout d\u2019abord la pluralit\u00e9 des sens conf\u00e9r\u00e9s au terme \u00ab innovation \u00bb appliqu\u00e9 au secteur de l\u2019eau potable afin de mettre en \u00e9vidence la complexit\u00e9 des processus en jeu, au-del\u00e0 des dimensions techniques et de gouvernance. Sont ensuite pr\u00e9cis\u00e9es la justification des deux quartiers non lotis retenus (Goundrin et Boassa) et la m\u00e9thodologie en termes de collecte et d\u2019analyse des donn\u00e9es de terrain. Ces innovations d\u2019en bas, rep\u00e9r\u00e9es dans ces quartiers, sont discut\u00e9es sous les angles suivants : leur dimension endog\u00e8ne dans des territoires caract\u00e9ris\u00e9s par des logiques projets ; les conditions de leur \u00e9mergence \u00e0 travers le r\u00f4le d\u2019\u00ab experts contextuels \u00bb ; la compr\u00e9hension de la fabrique de ces innovations, inscrites dans des dynamiques collectives ; et les cons\u00e9quences du passage \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle, c\u2019est-\u00e0-dire de leur diffusion au-del\u00e0 des territoires o\u00f9 elles ont \u00e9merg\u00e9, en termes de p\u00e9rennisation.  <\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Le concept d\u2019innovation en d\u00e9bat<\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"viewer-7wglw2287\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">L\u2019innovation est un \u00ab mot-valise \u00bb avec une diversit\u00e9 de significations, en fonction des disciplines et des approches qui s\u2019y r\u00e9f\u00e8rent. L\u2019innovation, en \u00e9conomie, est parfois consid\u00e9r\u00e9e comme \u00ab une am\u00e9lioration durable de l\u2019efficacit\u00e9 \u00e9conomique globale de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 \u00bb (Noailles, 2011, p. 3), rendue possible par l\u2019introduction de \u00ab nouveaut\u00e9 \u00bb dans le syst\u00e8me \u00e9conomique (Badillo, 2013 ; Ben Yakoub &amp; Achelhi, 2021). Une approche syst\u00e9mique enrichit cette vision en distinguant plusieurs types d\u2019innovations en r\u00e9f\u00e9rence \u00e0 la th\u00e9orie de l\u2019innovation de Schumpeter (1999). Ce dernier identifiait des innovations de proc\u00e9d\u00e9s, de produits, organisationnelles, en lien avec la d\u00e9couverte de nouvelles sources de mati\u00e8res premi\u00e8res, et l\u2019ouverture de nouveaux march\u00e9s, chacune ayant un impact diff\u00e9rent sur la croissance. Son apport r\u00e9side aussi dans le lien qu\u2019il \u00e9tablissait entre l\u2019innovation et la figure de l\u2019entrepreneur comme source de changement.    <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-1nd9j2289\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Appr\u00e9hend\u00e9e dans sa dimension technologique, l\u2019innovation a longtemps \u00e9t\u00e9 consid\u00e9r\u00e9e comme un processus lin\u00e9aire, associ\u00e9e \u00e0 l\u2019id\u00e9e de progr\u00e8s. Cette vision en restreint la port\u00e9e car \u00ab l\u2019innovation ne peut pas \u00eatre repr\u00e9sent\u00e9e, ni symbolis\u00e9e ou r\u00e9sum\u00e9e par un simple processus m\u00e9canique et lin\u00e9aire, m\u00eame \u00e9largi \u00e0 la notion de syst\u00e8me \u00bb (Noailles, 2011, p. 4). <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-7mne52291\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Afin de d\u00e9passer cette vision technique, lin\u00e9aire et \u00e9volutionniste de l\u2019innovation, et de se d\u00e9marquer de l\u2019id\u00e9e de progr\u00e8s, des auteurs ont mis en avant sa dimension sociale (Noailles, 2011). Plusieurs conceptions de l\u2019innovation sociale peuvent \u00eatre identifi\u00e9es dans la litt\u00e9rature. Pour certains, l\u2019accent est mis sur son caract\u00e8re innovateur avec pour objectif de favoriser le bien-\u00eatre des individus et des collectivit\u00e9s (Cloutier, 2003). Pour d\u2019autres, il s\u2019agit d\u2019analyser la fonction de l\u2019entreprise sociale comme support de cette innovation (Richez-Battesti et al., 2012). Enfin, certains travaux analysent plut\u00f4t le processus de mise en \u0153uvre, en montrant \u00e0 quelles conditions les innovations peuvent \u00eatre socialement efficaces et devenir \u00ab sources de transformations sociales pouvant favoriser l\u2019\u00e9mergence d\u2019un nouveau mod\u00e8le de d\u00e9veloppement \u00bb (Cloutier, 2003, p. 4). Sont discut\u00e9s l\u2019am\u00e9lioration de la qualit\u00e9 de vie des individus et le d\u00e9veloppement territorial (Bouazza &amp; Nafil, 2019).     <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-tq0gf2293\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Si ces deux dimensions, techniques et sociales, de l\u2019innovation peuvent appara\u00eetre comme oppos\u00e9es, elles n\u2019en demeurent pas moins compl\u00e9mentaires. Par exemple, l\u2019approche sociotechnique tente de d\u00e9passer toute opposition entre le technique et le social. Dans cette approche, l\u2019innovation renvoie \u00e0 \u00ab l\u2019art de l\u2019int\u00e9ressement \u00bb et repose sur la construction de r\u00e9seaux d\u2019alliances (Akrich et al., 1988). Pour int\u00e9resser les acteurs, l\u2019innovateur doit tisser des accords \u00e0 partir de n\u00e9gociations et de compromis sociotechniques (Akrich et al., 1988). Le succ\u00e8s de l\u2019innovation d\u00e9pend du processus d\u2019int\u00e9ressement et des compromis \u00e9labor\u00e9s, ce qui est d\u00e9terminant pour le niveau d\u2019adoption et de diffusion de l\u2019innovation. L\u2019approche socio-anthropologique conduit elle aussi \u00e0 consid\u00e9rer ce lien entre technique et social. L\u2019innovation est alors d\u00e9finie comme \u00ab toute greffe de techniques, de savoirs ou de modes d\u2019organisation in\u00e9dits, sur des techniques, savoirs et modes d\u2019organisation en place \u00bb (Olivier de Sardan, 1995, p. 78). Elle est consid\u00e9r\u00e9e comme une adaptation locale, bas\u00e9e sur des emprunts et des importations. Ce processus de greffage comporte plusieurs dimensions \u2013 technique, normative, organisationnelle, relationnelle et d\u00e9cisionnelle \u2013, combin\u00e9es au sein de \u00ab syst\u00e8mes sociaux locaux \u00bb dans lesquels l\u2019innovation s\u2019enracine et se diffuse par l\u2019interm\u00e9diaire de \u00ab porteurs sociaux \u00bb (Olivier de Sardan, 2022). Cette d\u00e9finition va donc au-del\u00e0 de l\u2019aspect sociotechnique car elle int\u00e8gre les connaissances et apprentissages, facteurs n\u00e9cessaires \u00e0 l\u2019organisation et la mise en \u0153uvre d\u2019une innovation. De plus, le passage d\u2019une \u00e9tape \u00e0 l\u2019autre au cours du processus d\u2019adoption fait appel au savoir-faire de l\u2019innovateur, qualifi\u00e9 d\u2019expert contextuel (Olivier de Sardan, 2022), terminologie que nous retiendrons dans l\u2019article. Olivier de Sardan distingue deux types \u00ab d\u2019experts contextuels \u00bb. Les experts contextuels directs sont des op\u00e9rationnels, intervenant aupr\u00e8s des usagers, et ins\u00e9r\u00e9s au sein des services \u00e9tatiques ou dans les projets port\u00e9s par les acteurs de l\u2019aide. Par ailleurs, les experts contextuels indirects d\u00e9cryptent et analysent les contextes locaux, comme c\u2019est le cas des chercheurs. Selon Olivier de Sardan, une expertise contextuelle doit comporter trois propri\u00e9t\u00e9s : \u00ab la familiarit\u00e9, la capacit\u00e9 critique et le concernement \u00bb (2022, p. 7). Nous nous r\u00e9f\u00e9rons, dans l\u2019article, \u00e0 \u00ab l\u2019expert contextuel direct \u00bb qui, sur la base du triptyque retenu par Olivier de Sardan, a une familiarit\u00e9 avec son milieu d\u2019appartenance et innove \u00e0 partir de sa connaissance des normes pratiques (Olivier de Sardan, 2022). Sa capacit\u00e9 \u00e0 mettre en place des innovations peut contribuer, dans la pratique, \u00e0 am\u00e9liorer l\u2019acc\u00e8s aux services urbains d\u2019eau dans les quartiers pr\u00e9caires.               &nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-345t32295\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Dans la mesure o\u00f9 les probl\u00e9matiques li\u00e9es \u00e0 l\u2019eau renvoient souvent \u00e0 la dimension technique du service ou de l\u2019exploitation de la ressource, les chercheurs se r\u00e9f\u00e8rent souvent \u00e0 la litt\u00e9rature sur l\u2019innovation dans sa dimension technico-\u00e9conomique. Elle appara\u00eet comme la solution qui permettrait la r\u00e9solution des probl\u00e8mes li\u00e9s \u00e0 l\u2019eau (Wehn &amp; Montalvo, 2018 ; Kydyrbekova et al., 2022). C\u2019est pourquoi elle est d\u00e9finie par Mvulirwenande et Wehn (2020, p. 1) comme \u00ab toute solution innovante et pratique de produits, proc\u00e9d\u00e9s ou services, susceptible de contribuer \u00e0 l\u2019am\u00e9lioration des performances du secteur de l\u2019eau en augmentant l\u2019efficience et l\u2019efficacit\u00e9 de la cha\u00eene de valeur de l\u2019eau \u00bb. Mais cette d\u00e9finition conf\u00e8re un poids surd\u00e9terminant aux facteurs technique et \u00e9conomique alors que, en particulier dans le secteur de l\u2019eau, la dynamique d\u2019innovation repose sur une multiplicit\u00e9 de facteurs, organisationnels, \u00e9conomiques, sociaux, institutionnels mais aussi sur des savoirs endog\u00e8nes, des r\u00e8gles informelles (Ahmed et al., 2023). Le facteur institutionnel est particuli\u00e8rement significatif. Par exemple, \u00e0 partir d\u2019\u00e9tudes de cas au Ghana, Kenya et Mozambique, Mvulirwenande &amp; Wehn (2020) montrent que les politiques publiques, \u00e0 travers les r\u00e9glementations formelles, r\u00e9gissent certes l\u2019innovation au niveau national, mais que ce sont surtout les interactions entre les acteurs formels et informels, notamment \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle locale, qui contribuent directement \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9mergence de processus d\u2019innovation. Ces innovations peuvent alors, sous certaines conditions, g\u00e9n\u00e9rer des r\u00e9formes institutionnelles dans le secteur de l\u2019eau.      <\/span><\/p>\n<h2><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">M\u00e9thodologie et justification des terrains<\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"viewer-m9xsl2301\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Nous privil\u00e9gions une approche socio-anthropologique (Olivier de Sardan, 1995, 2008) afin d\u2019identifier et analyser les sp\u00e9cificit\u00e9s contextuelles, les discours des acteurs et destinataires des innovations d\u2019en bas dans le domaine des services d\u2019eau. Nous mobilisons les outils m\u00e9thodologiques de l\u2019enqu\u00eate de terrain afin de comprendre le contexte d\u2019\u00e9mergence des innovations d\u2019en bas, leur adoption, leur diffusion et leur mise \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle. La d\u00e9marche qualitative a \u00e9t\u00e9 retenue pour identifier, observer et questionner ces innovations (Beaud &amp; Weber, 2010). Il ne s\u2019agit donc pas d\u2019une \u00e9tude d\u2019impact, et nous n\u2019avons pas proc\u00e9d\u00e9 \u00e0 une \u00e9tude quantitative qui supposerait une repr\u00e9sentativit\u00e9 des enqu\u00eat\u00e9s.   &nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-5thrf2303\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Nous retenons une m\u00e9thode comparative (Olivier de Sardan, 1995) pour identifier les invariants et sp\u00e9cificit\u00e9s des innovations d\u2019en bas, \u00e0 travers deux \u00e9tudes de cas approfondies, dans deux quartiers non lotis de Ouagadougou2 . Cette terminologie du \u00ab non loti \u00bb (Baron &amp; Bonnassieux, 2021 ; Guigma, 2017 ; Robineau, 2014) est retenue au Burkina Faso par les acteurs institutionnels et les Burkinab\u00e9s pour d\u00e9signer des quartiers \u00ab informels \u00bb, sans reconnaissance l\u00e9gale d\u2019occupation, o\u00f9 l\u2019op\u00e9rateur public \u2013 l\u2019Office national de l\u2019eau et de l\u2019assainissement (ONEA) \u2013 n\u2019assure pas directement la fourniture du service d\u2019eau. Ces quartiers sont donc des territoires particuli\u00e8rement int\u00e9ressants pour \u00e9tudier les innovations mises en place par diff\u00e9rents types d\u2019acteurs (publics, priv\u00e9s ou associatifs) pour pallier le manque d\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau.  <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-139ii2307\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Nous avons enqu\u00eat\u00e9 dans les quartiers de Goundrin et de Boassa&nbsp; afin de rendre compte des innovations d\u2019en bas port\u00e9es par des experts contextuels aux profils vari\u00e9s puisqu\u2019il s\u2019agit de petits op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s, formels et informels, ou d\u2019associations, ins\u00e9r\u00e9s dans ces territoires. Le choix des quartiers tient \u00e0 leur singularit\u00e9 qui ressort lorsqu\u2019on consid\u00e8re le \u00ab contexte de vie r\u00e9elle \u00bb (Yin, 2018), en tenant compte de leur situation g\u00e9ographique, leur histoire, leur place dans les jeux de pouvoir locaux et des modalit\u00e9s d\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau, au-del\u00e0 d\u2019une vision homog\u00e8ne du non loti. Ces espaces de l\u2019entre-deux, entre rural et urbain (Robineau, 2014), pr\u00e9sentent une structure morphologique et des statuts d\u2019occupation diff\u00e9rents. \u00c0 Goundrin, quartier non loti, les parcelles occup\u00e9es ont \u00e9t\u00e9 recens\u00e9es mais non attribu\u00e9es (Boyer, 2009), \u00e0 cause de l\u2019arr\u00eat des op\u00e9rations de lotissement en 2011 suite \u00e0 la d\u00e9nonciation de sp\u00e9culations d\u2019envergure (Sory, 2019). Boassa \u00e9tait un village rattach\u00e9 \u00e0 la commune de Boulmiougou, mais suite au lotissement de Sandogo, un quartier de cette commune en 2009, ceux qui n\u2019ont pas eu de parcelles se sont install\u00e9s \u00e0 Boassa. Depuis le nouveau d\u00e9coupage de Ouagadougou en 2012, Boassa est devenu un quartier non loti rattach\u00e9 \u00e0 l\u2019arrondissement 7 de Ouagadougou. La sp\u00e9cificit\u00e9 du non loti de Boassa r\u00e9side dans sa structuration socio-spatiale mieux organis\u00e9e que d\u2019autres non lotis. Par ailleurs, ces deux quartiers n\u2019ont pas b\u00e9n\u00e9fici\u00e9 de mini-r\u00e9seaux d\u2019eau d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s avec d\u00e9l\u00e9gation de la gestion \u00e0 de petits op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s&nbsp; comme cela a \u00e9t\u00e9 le cas de certains non lotis (Baron &amp; Bonnassieux, 2021 ; Baron et al., 2016, 2022).       <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-kcncp2313\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Des entretiens approfondis ont \u00e9t\u00e9 conduits en janvier et f\u00e9vrier 2023, suite \u00e0 des passages r\u00e9p\u00e9t\u00e9s en 2022 \u00e0 titre exploratoire. Au total, 19 entretiens ont \u00e9t\u00e9 r\u00e9alis\u00e9s aupr\u00e8s de 6 op\u00e9rateurs informels, 2 d\u00e9l\u00e9gataires, une association (Yaam5 Solidarit\u00e9), ainsi que 10 m\u00e9nages. Dans le cas des entretiens avec les experts contextuels (Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 et Y.O., un op\u00e9rateur informel), nous avons privil\u00e9gi\u00e9 des interactions en face \u00e0 face, sous la forme d\u2019entretiens de longue dur\u00e9e (deux heures) avec des passages r\u00e9p\u00e9t\u00e9s sur la p\u00e9riode. La production des donn\u00e9es empiriques a \u00e9t\u00e9 faite au moyen d\u2019un guide d\u2019entretien semi-directif. Chaque discours recueilli constitue un point de vue singulier sur notre objet d\u2019\u00e9tude. L\u2019usage de cette technique trouve sa pertinence dans la compr\u00e9hension du sens que les acteurs donnent \u00e0 leurs pratiques. Tout en privil\u00e9giant une enqu\u00eate de type socioanthropologique, nous avons utilis\u00e9 \u00e9galement la technique de l\u2019observation directe, sur la base d\u2019un guide d\u2019observation. Ceci nous a permis de percevoir les interactions entre les acteurs impliqu\u00e9s dans la fabrique des innovations d\u2019en bas \u00e0 Goundrin et \u00e0 Boassa. Compte tenu du faible nombre de personnes enqu\u00eat\u00e9es, nous n\u2019avons pas r\u00e9alis\u00e9 d\u2019analyse des profils socio-\u00e9conomiques qui ne seraient pas repr\u00e9sentatifs.        <\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"a5A3t A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Les innovations d\u2019en bas : dynamiques endog\u00e8nes ou<\/span> <span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">d\u00e9pendance aux politiques d\u2019en haut ?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"viewer-5s0s02321\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Les innovations d\u2019en bas sont souvent consid\u00e9r\u00e9es comme relevant d\u2019initiatives endog\u00e8nes. Qu\u2019en est-il de celles identifi\u00e9es \u00e0 Goundrin et Boassa ? <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-6kffq2323\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Depuis la reconnaissance des quartiers pr\u00e9caires comme des lieux d\u2019\u00e9tablissements durables dans les Suds (Deboulet, 2016), plusieurs politiques ont \u00e9t\u00e9 mises sur l\u2019agenda par les institutions internationales et nationales pour faciliter l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau aux populations de ces quartiers. Le cinqui\u00e8me Forum urbain mondial, organis\u00e9 par le Programme des Nations unies pour les \u00e9tablissements humains en avril 2010 \u00e0 Rio, a contribu\u00e9 \u00e0 la reconnaissance d\u2019un droit \u00e0 la ville, le droit \u00e0 l\u2019eau ayant \u00e9t\u00e9 reconnu comme droit fondamental par l\u2019ONU la m\u00eame ann\u00e9e. Des projets en lien avec ces enjeux ont alors \u00e9t\u00e9 financ\u00e9s par les bailleurs, notamment au Burkina Faso.  <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-t1m2r2325\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Dans le cadre du Programme participatif d\u2019am\u00e9lioration des bidonvilles (PPAB6 ), adopt\u00e9 par ONUHabitat en 2000, des projets urbains ont \u00e9t\u00e9 financ\u00e9s pour \u00ab am\u00e9liorer la vie d\u2019au moins 100 millions d\u2019habitants de bidonvilles d\u2019ici \u00e0 2020 \u00bb (Guigma, 2017, p. 9). C\u2019est ainsi que les quartiers de Bissighin et Watinoma Noghin \u00e0 Ouagadougou ont \u00e9t\u00e9 choisis en 2011 pour la mise en \u0153uvre de ce programme, en ciblant plus particuli\u00e8rement l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau potable et \u00e0 l\u2019habitat. <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-t0qv92329\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Un autre projet a \u00e9t\u00e9 financ\u00e9 par l\u2019Agence fran\u00e7aise de d\u00e9veloppement (AFD), \u00e0 savoir le Projet d\u2019am\u00e9nagement et de d\u00e9senclavement des quartiers p\u00e9riurbains de Ouagadougou (PAQP, 2007- 2011). L\u2019objectif \u00e9tait d\u2019am\u00e9liorer l\u2019habitat et l\u2019acc\u00e8s aux services de base, \u00e9quipements et espaces publics dans les quartiers pr\u00e9caires (AFD, 2014). Un volet visait \u00e0 assurer l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau potable aux populations des quartiers p\u00e9riurbains de Ouagadougou \u00e0 travers l\u2019installation de mini-r\u00e9seaux d\u2019eau d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s, avec bornes-fontaines et branchements priv\u00e9s pour les m\u00e9nages en capacit\u00e9 de les financer. Ainsi, en 2009, les non lotis de Nioko II et de Tabtenga ont b\u00e9n\u00e9fici\u00e9 de ce dispositif. Ces r\u00e9seaux sont g\u00e9r\u00e9s par de petits op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s, sous contr\u00f4le de l\u2019ONEA. C\u2019est ainsi que la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 SOZHAKOF&nbsp; intervient \u00e0 Nioko II et BERA8 , un bureau d\u2019\u00e9tudes, \u00e0 Tabtenga. Ce mod\u00e8le de gestion d\u00e9l\u00e9gu\u00e9e \u00e0 de petits op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s a cependant montr\u00e9 ses limites (Baron et al., 2016). Les d\u00e9l\u00e9gataires sont confront\u00e9s \u00e0 de nombreux probl\u00e8mes, \u00e0 la fois techniques (difficult\u00e9s \u00e0 faire face \u00e0 l\u2019accroissement de la demande, \u00e0 \u00e9tendre le r\u00e9seau), commerciaux (recouvrement des factures dans les temps), etc. N\u00e9anmoins, ce dispositif constitue une premi\u00e8re \u00e9tape dans la reconnaissance d\u2019initiatives qui questionnent l\u2019universalisation du mod\u00e8le du r\u00e9seau centralis\u00e9 (Jaglin, 2012 ; Hardy &amp; Poupeau, 2014).        <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-9ih6z2335\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Dans les quartiers qui n\u2019ont pas b\u00e9n\u00e9fici\u00e9 de ces projets port\u00e9s par l\u2019\u00c9tat et les bailleurs9 , comme Goundrin et Boassa, des innovations d\u2019en bas ont \u00e9merg\u00e9, de fa\u00e7on endog\u00e8ne. Elles s\u2019inscrivent dans des trajectoires de d\u00e9veloppement urbain, en r\u00e9ponse aux in\u00e9galit\u00e9s d\u2019acc\u00e8s aux services publics d\u2019eau \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle de la ville de Ouagadougou. <\/span><span style=\"background-color: var(--nv-site-bg); color: var( --e-global-color-text ); font-size: var(--bodyfontsize); letter-spacing: var(--bodyletterspacing); text-transform: var(--bodytexttransform);\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"viewer-xrzs92341\" class=\"a5A3t A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Conditions d\u2019\u00e9mergence d\u2019innovations d\u2019en bas<\/span> <span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">:&nbsp;<\/span>le r\u00f4le des \u00ab experts contextuels \u00bb<\/h2>\n<p id=\"viewer-y83zx2343\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Il ressort des donn\u00e9es de terrain que les innovations d\u2019en bas dans le domaine de l\u2019eau sont encastr\u00e9es dans des contextes et territoires sp\u00e9cifiques et sont initi\u00e9es par des acteurs, \u00ab experts-contextuels \u00bb ins\u00e9r\u00e9s dans des logiques collectives ou intervenant \u00e0 titre individuel.&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-k1ur32345\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Dans le cas de Goundrin, il s\u2019agit d\u2019une initiative individuelle port\u00e9e par un op\u00e9rateur d\u2019eau informel (Y.O.). Agent de bureau au minist\u00e8re de l\u2019Environnement, de l\u2019Eau et de l\u2019Assainissement, Y.O. habite dans le quartier de Goundrin depuis 2010. L\u2019\u00e9l\u00e9ment d\u00e9clenchant son engagement pour chercher une solution au manque d\u2019eau dans son quartier est li\u00e9 \u00e0 un \u00e9v\u00e9nement particulier, la chute d\u2019une femme enceinte alors qu\u2019elle revenait de la corv\u00e9e d\u2019eau :  <\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"viewer-ls22d2347\" dir=\"ltr\">\n<blockquote class=\"_5-ovX\">\n<div id=\"viewer-fs6be3077\" class=\"_6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"B-fpk _6Vwzd\">Ce qui m\u2019a vraiment motiv\u00e9 \u00e0 me battre pour que l\u2019eau puisse arriver dans le non loti ici, \u00e7a a \u00e9t\u00e9 vraiment un combat. J\u2019\u00e9tais assis devant ma porte un jour, c\u2019\u00e9tait dans la soir\u00e9e vers 18h, lorsque je suis revenu du service, je voulais partir \u00e0 Loumbila chez Madame et au m\u00eame moment, j\u2019ai vu une dame enceinte qui poussait une barrique d\u2019eau. C\u2019\u00e9tait en saison pluvieuse o\u00f9 il y avait de la boue partout. La barrique s\u2019est embourb\u00e9e et elle est tomb\u00e9e. Elle est tomb\u00e9e avec la barrique d\u2019eau, pourtant elle \u00e9tait enceinte. Moi qui ai suivi toute la sc\u00e8ne, je suis all\u00e9 l\u2019aider \u00e0 se relever, j\u2019ai r\u00e9cup\u00e9r\u00e9 la barrique d\u2019eau que j\u2019ai pouss\u00e9e jusqu\u2019\u00e0 chez elle. Elle me disait qu\u2019elle avait pass\u00e9 toute la journ\u00e9e \u00e0 la borne-fontaine avant d\u2019avoir l\u2019eau, parce que l\u2019eau venait et \u00e7a se coupait, \u00e7a venait et \u00e7a se coupait. Je vous dis que ce jour-l\u00e0, j\u2019ai coul\u00e9 des larmes. Mes t\u00e9moins sont toujours l\u00e0. Depuis ce jour, j\u2019ai d\u00e9cid\u00e9 de me battre avec mes moyens du bord pour amener l\u2019eau dans mon quartier. (Y.O., op\u00e9rateur informel d\u2019eau \u00e0 Goundrin, entretien r\u00e9alis\u00e9 en janvier 2023).          <\/span><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"viewer-gue8f2349\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Motiv\u00e9 par une logique d\u2019entraide et de solidarit\u00e9, Y.O. d\u00e9cide d\u2019entreprendre des d\u00e9marches pour r\u00e9soudre les probl\u00e8mes d\u2019eau dans le quartier. Il souhaite tout d\u2019abord l\u00e9gitimer son action en cr\u00e9ant une association, l\u2019Association Jeunesse et D\u00e9veloppement (AJD) afin de publiciser son action \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle du quartier. Il s\u2019engage ensuite en politique pour d\u00e9fendre le droit \u00e0 l\u2019eau pour les populations de Goundrin sur le plan institutionnel, puis plus largement pour les quartiers non lotis. Son engagement est donc politique et financier puisqu\u2019il contracte un pr\u00eat pour r\u00e9aliser des points d\u2019eau pour les m\u00e9nages du quartier. Il construit une pompe \u00e0 motricit\u00e9 humaine, puis des postes d\u2019eau autonomes, avec des branchements particuliers (photos 1 et 2). Dans ce cas particulier, cet op\u00e9rateur priv\u00e9 informel saisit des opportunit\u00e9s pour construire, \u00e0 son initiative, des infrastructures d\u2019eau pour le \u00ab bien commun \u00bb, en r\u00e9pondant \u00e0 des urgences situ\u00e9es. L\u2019eau est certes payante, mais Y.O. ne privil\u00e9gie pas une logique de rentabilit\u00e9. Ainsi, l\u2019innovation s\u2019impose lorsque l\u2019environnement lui est favorable (Akrich et al., 1988).       <\/span><\/p>\n<h6 id=\"viewer-xqq2k4765\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/span><\/h6>\n<div id=\"viewer-tezlq3607\" class=\"-O-wI\">\n<div class=\"peFtv hxhTK\">\n<figure class=\"yrpQK\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" data-hook=\"imageViewer\" aria-haspopup=\"true\">\n<div id=\"tezlq3607\" class=\"YgO18 _7cQp8 MYYaD\"><figure style=\"width: 688px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.wixstatic.com\/media\/41715f_4b18023dd1124ed88852a37a7cd0e119~mv2.png\/v1\/fill\/w_688,h_916,al_c,q_90,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01,enc_auto\/41715f_4b18023dd1124ed88852a37a7cd0e119~mv2.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"688\" height=\"916\" data-load-done=\"\"><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo 1 : Poste d\u2019eau autonome \u00e0 Goundrin (photographie des auteurs)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"viewer-s8nlx5185\" class=\"o0STb GF80u joYDm HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"B-fpk\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/div>\n<div id=\"viewer-if7435184\" class=\"-O-wI\">\n<div class=\"peFtv hxhTK\">\n<figure class=\"yrpQK\" tabindex=\"0\" role=\"button\" data-hook=\"imageViewer\" aria-haspopup=\"true\">\n<div id=\"if7435184\" class=\"YgO18 _7cQp8 MYYaD\"><figure style=\"width: 688px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/static.wixstatic.com\/media\/41715f_5b7bd79d49684c45b49fac96ef32224b~mv2.png\/v1\/fill\/w_688,h_916,al_c,q_90,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01,enc_auto\/41715f_5b7bd79d49684c45b49fac96ef32224b~mv2.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"688\" height=\"916\" data-load-done=\"\"><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Photo 2 : Emplacement d\u2019un robinet chez un particulier \u00e0 Goundrin (photographie des auteurs)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"viewer-vxupw3719\" class=\"o0STb GF80u LEG-P HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"B-fpk\">&nbsp;<\/span><\/div>\n<p id=\"viewer-eko642357\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Le cas de Boassa est quelque peu diff\u00e9rent puisqu\u2019une association, Yaam Solidarit\u00e9&nbsp;, est pr\u00e9sente dans le quartier depuis 2016. Elle intervient dans le soutien \u00e0 l\u2019autoconstruction avec la valorisation des mat\u00e9riaux locaux, dans une d\u00e9marche participative. L\u2019obtention d\u2019un financement par la Fondation Abb\u00e9-Pierre et l\u2019AFD pour le projet&nbsp; \u00ab Habiter et mieux vivre dans les non lotis \u00bb (2020-2022) a renforc\u00e9 sa visibilit\u00e9 comme expert contextuel au niveau local. Pourtant, au d\u00e9but du projet, les populations ne souhaitaient pas b\u00e9n\u00e9ficier de ces actions car elles \u00e9taient en attente d\u2019un futur lotissement. Face \u00e0 cette situation, l\u2019association a d\u00e9cid\u00e9 de mener une enqu\u00eate d\u2019identification des besoins des habitants qui ont mentionn\u00e9 les probl\u00e8mes d\u2019eau comme prioritaires. Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 a alors d\u00e9cid\u00e9 de r\u00e9pondre \u00e0 ces besoins en finan\u00e7ant, gr\u00e2ce au projet, un poste d\u2019eau autonome \u00e0 Boassa.     <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-3e9602363\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">En r\u00e9sum\u00e9, Boassa et Goundrin partagent des pr\u00e9occupations communes en tant que quartiers non branch\u00e9s sur le r\u00e9seau conventionnel, alors que les besoins en eau vont croissant. Mais dans un cas, c\u2019est une d\u00e9marche individuelle li\u00e9e \u00e0 un \u00e9v\u00e9nement pr\u00e9cis qui est \u00e0 l\u2019origine de l\u2019innovation ; alors que dans l\u2019autre, il s\u2019agit d\u2019un processus d\u2019identification des besoins des populations \u00e0 l\u2019initiative d\u2019une association. Qu\u2019il s\u2019agisse d\u2019un acteur individuel (Y.O.) ou d\u2019une association (Yaam Solidarit\u00e9), l\u2019utilisation du terme \u00ab expert contextuel \u00bb se justifie par leur ancrage territorial et les comp\u00e9tences acquises, au cours de leur engagement, en mati\u00e8re de droit \u00e0 l\u2019eau.  <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-3rdf62365\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Par ailleurs, dans les deux cas, des d\u00e9cisions politiques ont favoris\u00e9 l\u2019adoption de ces innovations d\u2019en bas. Alors que le projet de d\u00e9l\u00e9gation du service d\u2019eau \u00e0 de petits op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s dans les non lotis devait passer \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle, c\u2019est-\u00e0-dire \u00eatre \u00e9tendu \u00e0 l\u2019ensemble des non lotis de Ouagadougou, le projet s\u2019arr\u00eate en 2019 faute de financement. Par ailleurs, l\u2019arr\u00eat des lotissements en 2011 (Sory, 2019) impacte l\u2019implantation de r\u00e9seaux d\u2019eau dans ces quartiers. Finalement, les quartiers pr\u00e9caires n\u2019ayant pas b\u00e9n\u00e9fici\u00e9 de la d\u00e9l\u00e9gation des services publics d\u2019eau restent dans cet entre-deux, b\u00e9n\u00e9ficiant \u00e0 la fois d\u2019actions ponctuelles dans le cadre de politiques publiques internationalis\u00e9es (Lavigne Delville &amp; Schlimmer, 2020) et d\u2019innovations d\u2019en bas, souvent de nature informelle, essayant chacune de mettre en place une communication particuli\u00e8re avec des messages porteurs de sens (O\u2019Callaghan, 2020).   <\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"viewer-9a7dm12013\" class=\"o0STb GF80u _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\">&nbsp;<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"viewer-mdbxn2369\" class=\"a5A3t A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">La fabrique des innovations d\u2019en bas dans les services d\u2019eau :<\/span> <span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">quelles logiques d\u2019action collective ?<\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"viewer-wn95h2371\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Sur le plan organisationnel, la mise en \u0153uvre d\u2019une innovation s\u2019inscrit dans une dynamique collective, m\u00eame si l\u2019impulsion originelle est individuelle. Elle suit un processus non lin\u00e9aire, parsem\u00e9 de chocs et d\u2019\u00e9v\u00e9nements impr\u00e9vus (Greenhalgh et al., 2004).&nbsp;<\/span><\/p><p id=\"viewer-wn95h2371\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\">\u00c0 Goundrin, Y.O., dans ses d\u00e9marches pour l\u2019implantation d\u2019infrastructures d\u2019eau, a d\u2019abord cr\u00e9\u00e9 une association, l\u2019Association Jeunesse et D\u00e9veloppement (AJD) :<\/p>\n<div id=\"viewer-3doi52373\" dir=\"ltr\">\n<blockquote class=\"_5-ovX\">\n<div id=\"viewer-5jag24372\" class=\"_6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"B-fpk _6Vwzd\">J\u2019ai eu l\u2019id\u00e9e de cr\u00e9er une association d\u00e9nomm\u00e9e Jeunesse et d\u00e9veloppement, donc, dans le statut et r\u00e8glement int\u00e9rieur, on a mis l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau potable et \u00e0 l\u2019assainissement, on a eu m\u00eame \u00e0 nettoyer des districts, des lyc\u00e9es, la trame d\u2019accueil, la mairie. En son temps, on a nettoy\u00e9 pas mal de structures dont j\u2019\u00e9tais le pr\u00e9sident parce que c\u2019\u00e9tait pour commencer. Moi seul, je ne peux pas faire cr\u00e9er une association qui va permettre aux gens du quartier de se r\u00e9unir pour lutter pour la cause de l\u2019eau, donc raison pour laquelle j\u2019ai commenc\u00e9 par cr\u00e9er une association. \u00c0 partir de l\u2019association, j\u2019ai eu des aides. Premi\u00e8re aide, on a eu des vivres, c\u2019\u00e9tait avec le Larl\u00e9 Naaba[12] qu\u2019on a eu des vivres, des sacs de riz, des sacs de ma\u00efs aussi. Apr\u00e8s \u00e7a, les gens ont commenc\u00e9 \u00e0 me faire confiance pour m\u2019accompagner dans mes d\u00e9marches. J\u2019ai demand\u00e9 l\u2019appui de la mairie, mais le maire a refus\u00e9 en me demandant si j\u2019ai de l\u2019espace pour implanter une borne-fontaine. J\u2019\u00e9tais pr\u00eat \u00e0 c\u00e9der une partie de ma cour d\u2019habitation, mais les n\u00e9gociations n\u2019ont pas abouti. L\u2019association est n\u00e9e rien que pour \u00e9tancher la soif des populations. J\u2019ai \u00e9t\u00e9 aussi membre du groupe d\u2019autod\u00e9fense pour la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 du quartier, en son temps l\u2019ins\u00e9curit\u00e9 \u00e9tait grandissante ici, avant de me lancer en politique pour \u00eatre conseiller. (Y.O., op\u00e9rateur informel \u00e0 Goundrin, entretien r\u00e9alis\u00e9 en janvier 2023)          <\/span><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"viewer-xq7qv2377\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">L\u2019objectif de l\u2019association est de d\u00e9fendre le droit d\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau et \u00e0 l\u2019assainissement des habitants de Goundrin. Les actions men\u00e9es ont permis \u00e0 cet \u00ab expert contextuel \u00bb de s\u2019afficher publiquement \u00e0 travers des actions citoyennes et de mettre en place un r\u00e9seau d\u2019alli\u00e9s (Akrich et al., 1988). Dans une telle situation, les innovateurs-experts contextuels tissent des relations avec d\u2019autres acteurs afin d\u2019obtenir et de maintenir un climat de coop\u00e9ration, en se basant sur les ressources mat\u00e9rielles et humaines disponibles.  <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-e7h1t2379\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Une autre strat\u00e9gie retenue par Y.O. est de se lancer dans la politique ; il r\u00e9ussit \u00e0 convaincre le ministre de l\u2019Eau et de l\u2019Assainissement des probl\u00e8mes d\u2019eau \u00e0 Goundrin. \u00c0 la fin de la transition politique de 2015[13], Y.O. saisit l\u2019opportunit\u00e9 pour participer \u00e0 la campagne politique en d\u00e9fendant l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau pour les non lotis de Ouagadougou. C\u2019est ainsi que Y.O., op\u00e9rateur priv\u00e9 informel, r\u00e9ussit \u00e0 se positionner comme conseiller municipal de Goundrin. Apr\u00e8s les \u00e9lections, Y.O. contracte un premier pr\u00eat (trois ans), en tant que fonctionnaire, pour construire une pompe \u00e0 motricit\u00e9 humaine (PMH) devant son domicile et permettre \u00e0 la population de s\u2019approvisionner gratuitement. Puis il obtient un second pr\u00eat de cinq ans pour transformer la PMH en un poste d\u2019eau autonome (PEA), afin de pouvoir r\u00e9aliser des branchements particuliers chez les m\u00e9nages.    <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-it4nu2383\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Au d\u00e9part, les d\u00e9marches aupr\u00e8s du maire de l\u2019arrondissement 10 pour valider l\u2019implantation de ces infrastructures sont un \u00e9chec. En effet, pour les autorit\u00e9s municipales, les quartiers p\u00e9riurbains seront prochainement lotis ; il n\u2019est donc pas n\u00e9cessaire d\u2019y implanter des points d\u2019eau \u00ab informels \u00bb. Mais le ministre ordonne au directeur g\u00e9n\u00e9ral de l\u2019ONEA d\u2019envoyer une \u00e9quipe au domicile de Y.O. pour faire des essais de pompage. \u00c0 l\u2019issue des essais, Y.O. r\u00e9alise son projet, sans financement ext\u00e9rieur, et propose des branchements domiciliaires \u00e0 partir du PEA. Ainsi, dans ce cas, l\u2019implication dans la politique appara\u00eet comme une condition n\u00e9cessaire et comme un canal que l\u2019expert contextuel utilise pour convaincre les autorit\u00e9s publiques comp\u00e9tentes. Par ce canal, Y.O. contourne les contraintes institutionnelles (niveau mairie) pour aboutir \u00e0 la concr\u00e9tisation de son projet. L\u2019innovation constitue ici un enjeu politique et strat\u00e9gique (Baregheh et al., 2009).      <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-3w9072385\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">\u00c0 Boassa, les d\u00e9marches entreprises par l\u2019association Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 pour l\u2019implantation d\u2019un poste d\u2019eau autonome sont tout autres. L\u2019association a \u00e9labor\u00e9 un projet pour obtenir un financement de bailleurs (Fondation Abb\u00e9-Pierre et AFD), et a identifi\u00e9 l\u2019eau comme un enjeu majeur apr\u00e8s une enqu\u00eate pour \u00e9valuer les besoins des populations. La Fondation Abb\u00e9-Pierre a effectu\u00e9 une mission \u00e0 Ouagadougou pour faire le diagnostic et identifier les potentiels b\u00e9n\u00e9ficiaires avant de financer la r\u00e9alisation d\u2019un forage \u00e9quip\u00e9 d\u2019une PMH. Au regard de la demande croissante en eau potable, Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 d\u00e9cide ensuite de remplacer la PMH par un PEA pour augmenter la capacit\u00e9 de production d\u2019eau. La gestion des infrastructures est assur\u00e9e par un comit\u00e9 local de gestion. Un syst\u00e8me d\u2019\u00e9pargne par tontine est mis en place pour l\u2019entretien et la maintenance du poste d\u2019eau autonome afin de ne pas recourir aux partenaires techniques et financiers en cas de panne.     &nbsp;&nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-qei7t2387\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Dans les deux quartiers, la mise en \u0153uvre des innovations d\u2019en bas a n\u00e9cessit\u00e9 le recours \u00e0 d\u2019autres personnes, des facilitateurs, pour la concr\u00e9tisation des projets. M\u00eame si Y.O. utilise des moyens personnels pour r\u00e9aliser son projet, il s\u2019appuie sur des acteurs politiques, \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle nationale. Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 a pour sa part recours \u00e0 un r\u00e9seau externe pour financer son poste d\u2019eau. Par cons\u00e9quent, la mise en \u0153uvre de l\u2019innovation suit un processus incertain et complexe, comprenant des activit\u00e9s interd\u00e9pendantes. Ce processus n\u00e9cessite g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement l\u2019implication de plusieurs personnes, aux int\u00e9r\u00eats et strat\u00e9gies diff\u00e9rents (Boer &amp; Pendant, 2001).    <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-6dgcx2389\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Au regard des d\u00e9marches entreprises, que ce soit \u00e0 Goundrin ou \u00e0 Boassa, les mobilisations d\u2019en bas constituent une base n\u00e9cessaire pour la mise en \u0153uvre de l\u2019innovation. En r\u00e9alit\u00e9, l\u2019expert contextuel est le chef op\u00e9rateur de l\u2019innovation, \u00e9tant le seul \u00e0 d\u00e9terminer le standard technique, \u00e0 choisir le mod\u00e8le \u00e9conomique, \u00e0 trouver le financement et \u00e0 commercialiser en fixant le prix (Noailles, 2011). Goundrin et Boassa apparaissent comme des territoires d\u2019exp\u00e9rimentation \u00e0 partir desquels les innovateurs, devenus experts contextuels, impulsent des initiatives locales. Ces innovations d\u2019en bas \u00ab peuvent concurrencer les d\u00e9l\u00e9gataires des services publics conventionnels et avoir le potentiel de se diffuser \u00bb (Mvulirwenande &amp; Wehn, 2020, p. 4)   <\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">De la diffusion \u00e0 la mise \u00e0 \u00e9chelle : entre p\u00e9rennit\u00e9 et disparition<\/span><\/h2>\n<p id=\"viewer-0pm1q2395\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Ces innovations d\u2019en bas sont-elles amen\u00e9es \u00e0 se p\u00e9renniser avec leur reconnaissance par des politiques publiques de l\u2019eau ciblant les quartiers pr\u00e9caires et fond\u00e9es sur des principes de justice, ou sont-elles vou\u00e9es \u00e0 dispara\u00eetre ? La diffusion de ces innovations d\u2019en bas favorise-t-elle l\u2019\u00e9laboration d\u2019un mod\u00e8le alternatif au r\u00e9seau centralis\u00e9 ? <\/span><\/p>\n<h6 id=\"viewer-p5zy92397\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\" style=\"font-weight: normal;\">Nos enqu\u00eates t\u00e9moignent de la diffusion des id\u00e9es de Y.O. au-del\u00e0 du quartier de Goundrin.<\/span><\/h6>\n<div id=\"viewer-3v98q2399\" dir=\"ltr\">\n<blockquote class=\"_5-ovX\">\n<div id=\"viewer-07rvs4941\" class=\"_6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"B-fpk _6Vwzd\">Je suis J.S., le gestionnaire du forage Faso Nooma, le promoteur se nomme D.O. Au d\u00e9but, notre entreprise ne produisait que de l\u2019eau min\u00e9rale en sachet de 25 francs CFA. Il y a trois ans de cela, nous avons appris, mon patron et moi, qu\u2019il serait possible \u00e0 partir de notre forage, de faire des branchements dans les habitations. De renseignement en renseignement, nous avons pu rencontrer l\u2019ex-conseiller du quartier sur comment r\u00e9aliser des branchements particuliers dans les domiciles. Nous nous sommes inspir\u00e9s de l\u2019exp\u00e9rience de Y.O et, pour pouvoir faire les branchements, nous avons d\u00e9pos\u00e9 un dossier \u00e0 la mairie de l\u2019arrondissement 10 pour avoir l\u2019autorisation. Ensuite, nous sommes all\u00e9s au minist\u00e8re de l\u2019Environnement pour que les agents de l\u2019\u00c9tat viennent inspecter le lieu et faire une \u00e9tude d\u2019impact environnemental. C\u2019est comme cela que nous sommes parvenus aux branchements dans les habitations et aujourd\u2019hui nous sommes \u00e0 420 abonn\u00e9s. Il y a d\u2019autres commer\u00e7ants qui sont dans les non lotis de Saaba, qui sont venus s\u2019inspirer aussi de notre exp\u00e9rience. Ce n\u2019est pas seulement Saaba, il y a Nioko II et m\u00eame d\u2019autres dans la commune de Tougouri. Au d\u00e9but, nous avons commenc\u00e9 avec 40 000 francs CFA comme frais de branchement, maintenant avec la chert\u00e9 du mat\u00e9riel, nous sommes \u00e0 75 000 francs CFA. (J.S., habitant de Goundrin, gestionnaire du forage Faso Nooma, entretien r\u00e9alis\u00e9 en f\u00e9vrier 2023)         <\/span><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"viewer-a6vfa2401\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Ce mod\u00e8le d\u2019int\u00e9ressement (Akrich et al., 1988) montre clairement que l\u2019innovation circule au-del\u00e0 de Goundrin. Le partage de connaissances et d\u2019exp\u00e9riences favorise l\u2019apparition d\u2019autres fili\u00e8res de production d\u2019eau afin de r\u00e9pondre \u00e0 une demande croissante. Au cours de la collecte de donn\u00e9es, nous avons d\u00e9nombr\u00e9 six op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s informels, tous des agents commerciaux (deux ayant des postes d\u2019eau autonomes et quatre faisant des branchements domiciliaires). Ces initiatives locales se r\u00e9pandent \u00e0 grande \u00e9chelle, et elles reposent sur une logique commerciale (Mvulirwenande &amp; Wehn, 2020) du fait de la rentabilit\u00e9 de la vente d\u2019eau. Dans cette dynamique de foisonnement de services d\u2019eau non conventionnels suivant une logique entrepreneuriale, la dimension solidaire qui permettait de r\u00e9pondre aux besoins des populations \u00e0 des tarifs abordables passe au second plan.    <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-dephi2403\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Ce processus informel de diffusion a conduit \u00e0 la mise en place de structures associatives pour appuyer les experts contextuels. L\u2019association pour la promotion d\u2019eau potable, dont Y.O n\u2019est pas membre, a son si\u00e8ge \u00e0 Saaba, et a organis\u00e9 une cellule de veille qui cadre et oriente les activit\u00e9s des experts contextuels, afin de r\u00e9soudre les difficult\u00e9s rencontr\u00e9es. Dans le cas de Goundrin, la diffusion de l\u2019innovation \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle du quartier a engendr\u00e9 la cr\u00e9ation d\u2019un syst\u00e8me de coop\u00e9ration locale pour g\u00e9rer collectivement les probl\u00e8mes et promouvoir une gouvernance locale de l\u2019eau.  <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-l3q202405\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Mais la diffusion de l\u2019innovation a aussi g\u00e9n\u00e9r\u00e9 des effets inattendus, notamment dans les p\u00e9rim\u00e8tres d\u2019intervention des d\u00e9l\u00e9gataires d\u2019eau formels (sous contrat avec l\u2019ONEA) o\u00f9 des op\u00e9rateurs informels effectuent des branchements particuliers clandestins. Parmi les m\u00e9nages interview\u00e9s, certains justifient leurs deux abonnements, celui conventionnel et celui informel, pour se pr\u00e9munir des coupures d\u2019eau de l\u2019ONEA. Les syst\u00e8mes de production et de distribution d\u2019eau implant\u00e9s par les priv\u00e9s informels sont des syst\u00e8mes hybrides. Il y a donc moins de coupures d\u2019eau, mais cela contribue \u00e0 l\u2019appauvrissement de la nappe phr\u00e9atique. D\u2019autres m\u00e9nages utilisent l\u2019eau distribu\u00e9e par les op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s informels pour des usages domestiques autres que la boisson. Par ailleurs, ces acteurs de l\u2019informel contribuent \u00e0 am\u00e9liorer l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau des populations non branch\u00e9es, abandonn\u00e9es \u00e0 leur propre sort, les bornes-fontaines publiques \u00e9tant insuffisantes. Les autorit\u00e9s publiques ne connaissent pas le nombre pr\u00e9cis d\u2019op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s non conventionnels pr\u00e9sents \u00e0 Goundrin, alors qu\u2019ils desservent la majorit\u00e9 des m\u00e9nages.      <\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-zyxi02407\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">\u00c0 Boassa, les innovations d\u2019en bas s\u2019inscrivent dans des logiques d\u2019\u00e9change et de partage d\u2019exp\u00e9riences au sein de r\u00e9seaux qui d\u00e9passent l\u2019\u00e9chelle du Burkina Faso. Ainsi, le syst\u00e8me de r\u00e9seautage initi\u00e9 par Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 s\u2019appuie sur des collaborations multi-pays, notamment avec le S\u00e9n\u00e9gal, la Guin\u00e9eBissau et le Mali. Par exemple :  <\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"viewer-h8kd62409\" dir=\"ltr\">\n<blockquote class=\"_5-ovX\">\n<div id=\"viewer-7p3tp5131\" class=\"_6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"B-fpk _6Vwzd\">Pour p\u00e9renniser la gestion, nous avons mis en place un comit\u00e9 de gestion compos\u00e9 des membres de la F\u00e9d\u00e9ration des Habitants du Burkina Faso, \u00e0 l\u2019image de la F\u00e9d\u00e9ration des Habitants du S\u00e9n\u00e9gal, vu que nous travaillons ensemble sur les m\u00eames projets dans les quartiers non lotis. La f\u00e9d\u00e9ration est compos\u00e9e de 134 groupements f\u00e9minins, avec 30 personnes par groupement. Au fait, la f\u00e9d\u00e9ration est une organisation habitante et nous sommes appuy\u00e9s techniquement par UrbaSen du S\u00e9n\u00e9gal et le Groupe de recherche et de r\u00e9alisation pour le d\u00e9veloppement rural de Canchungo en Guin\u00e9e-Bissau, qui sont tr\u00e8s en avance sur les questions de structuration des groupements. Avec le partage d\u2019exp\u00e9riences, nous arrivons \u00e0 mieux organiser la f\u00e9d\u00e9ration pour g\u00e9rer le point d\u2019eau et les activit\u00e9s de r\u00e9habilitation des habitats, suivant une logique participative. (O.S. responsable financi\u00e8re \u00e0 Yaam Solidarit\u00e9, entretien r\u00e9alis\u00e9 en janvier 2023)    <\/span><\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"viewer-gwrbg2411\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Ces interventions suivent la logique des \u00ab mod\u00e8les voyageurs \u00bb (Olivier de Sardan &amp; Vari-Lavoisier, 2022), pr\u00f4n\u00e9e par certains acteurs de l\u2019aide internationale, pour combler les d\u00e9faillances de l\u2019\u00c9tat et des op\u00e9rateurs conventionnels.<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"viewer-7qspl2413\" class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">Il appara\u00eet donc que l\u2019\u00c9tat accompagne implicitement ces innovations d\u2019en bas, en les autorisant, sans pour autant les reconna\u00eetre sur le plan institutionnel car elles sont en d\u00e9calage avec des politiques publiques qui consid\u00e8rent les non lotis comme des territoires sans existence l\u00e9gale. Quant aux op\u00e9rateurs priv\u00e9s informels, l\u2019\u00c9tat semble ne pas chercher \u00e0 r\u00e9guler leurs pratiques pour le moment, ce qui peut conduire \u00e0 des logiques de recherche de profit, \u00e0 l\u2019encontre d\u2019une plus grande justice sociale et territoriale. &nbsp;<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">La question de savoir dans quelle mesure la reconnaissance et l\u2019institutionnalisation de certaines pratiques, fond\u00e9es sur des logiques de solidarit\u00e9, permettraient-elles d\u2019assurer un acc\u00e8s \u00e9quitable aux services d\u2019eau, en encadrant et limitant les logiques de rentabilit\u00e9 et de profit qui semblent caract\u00e9riser les innovations d\u2019en bas, en d\u00e9calage avec les initiatives de d\u00e9part reste enti\u00e8re.<\/span><\/p>\n<h2 class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\"> Conclusion<\/span><\/h2>\n<p class=\"_1LEAZ A-ZZ4 _6Vwzd HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\"><span class=\"-EZUV _6Vwzd\">\u00c0 travers cette contribution, il ressort que, dans le domaine des services d\u2019eau, les innovations d\u2019en bas, telles que nous les avons d\u00e9finies \u00e0 partir de la revue de la litt\u00e9rature et des \u00e9tudes de cas de Goundrin et de Boassa, foisonnent dans les quartiers pr\u00e9caires non lotis de Ouagadougou. Si \u00e0 Goundrin, Y.O. est le personnage cl\u00e9 qui, gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 la d\u00e9brouillardise et le bricolage quotidien, est le porteur social d\u2019innovations d\u2019en bas made in Goundrin, \u00e0 Boassa, l\u2019association Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 a \u0153uvr\u00e9 \u00e0 la mise en place d\u2019une innovation d\u2019en bas, bas\u00e9e sur une dynamique locale de gestion participative dans le cadre d\u2019un projet qu\u2019elle a initi\u00e9. Chaque innovation est anim\u00e9e d\u2019une logique sp\u00e9cifique de savoir-faire endog\u00e8ne, qui facilite son acceptation et sa mise en \u0153uvre \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle locale. La diffusion de ces initiatives emprunte des formes diff\u00e9rentes pour s\u2019imposer dans d\u2019autres territoires, avec tous les risques encourus, comme le passage d\u2019une logique solidaire \u00e0 une logique de rentabilit\u00e9, ou encore de principes de coop\u00e9ration \u00e0 la concurrence. Ceci peut conduire, dans certains cas, \u00e0 des situations conflictuelles entre acteurs formels et informels, ou entre des acteurs informels mus par des logiques oppos\u00e9es. Par ailleurs, la p\u00e9rennit\u00e9 de telles activit\u00e9s est largement influenc\u00e9e par les d\u00e9cisions des pouvoirs publics. Cela nous am\u00e8ne \u00e0 nous interroger, sur des modalit\u00e9s de coordination innovantes entre diff\u00e9rents acteurs (formels et informels ; public, priv\u00e9s et associatifs), afin de consid\u00e9rer les services d\u2019eau, et les ressources en eau dont ils d\u00e9pendent, comme des communs. Comment penser la coproduction&nbsp; de services urbains d\u2019eau, pens\u00e9s comme communs, dans ces contextes urbains riches en innovations d\u2019en bas ?      <\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"viewer-q436a2425\" class=\"o0STb GF80u joYDm HjRUP\" dir=\"auto\">&nbsp;<\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2d9184d e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-child\" data-id=\"2d9184d\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a7fd8c3 ignoretoc elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a7fd8c3\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Les auteurs<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-38b0172 ignoretoc elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-link-in-bio\" data-id=\"38b0172\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"link-in-bio.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio e-link-in-bio\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image e-link-in-bio__identity-image-profile has-style-circle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura--225x300.png\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image-element\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura--225x300.png 225w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura-.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bio\">\n\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"e-link-in-bio__heading\">Ma\u00eframa Tamboura<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"e-link-in-bio__title\">Doctorante en Sociologie, LASME,<\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"e-link-in-bio__description\">Universit\u00e9 Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso<\/p>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icons has-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon is-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a aria-label=\"Email\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-link\" href=\"mailto:mariamtam94@yahoo.fr?subject=Contact%20from%20GA%20Bio\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-svg\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-envelope\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__ctas has-type-button\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/mairama-tamboura\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener \" class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta is-type-button has-corners-rounded\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta-text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tVoir le profil complet\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-12fa378 ignoretoc elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-link-in-bio\" data-id=\"12fa378\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"link-in-bio.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio e-link-in-bio\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image e-link-in-bio__identity-image-profile has-style-circle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Catherine-Baron--225x300.png\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image-element\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Catherine-Baron--225x300.png 225w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Catherine-Baron-.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bio\">\n\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"e-link-in-bio__heading\">Catherine Baron<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"e-link-in-bio__title\">Professeure des Universit\u00e9s en Am\u00e9nagement de l\u2019Espace et Urbanisme, LEREPS-Sciences Po Toulouse, France<\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icons has-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon is-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a aria-label=\"Email\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-link\" href=\"mailto:baron@ut-capitole.fr?subject=Contact%20from%20GA%20Bio\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-svg\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-envelope\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__ctas has-type-button\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/catherine-baron\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener \" class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta is-type-button has-corners-rounded\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta-text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tVoir le profil complet\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8de914b ignoretoc elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-link-in-bio\" data-id=\"8de914b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"link-in-bio.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio e-link-in-bio\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image e-link-in-bio__identity-image-profile has-style-circle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Ramane-Kabore--225x300.png\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image-element\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Ramane-Kabore--225x300.png 225w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Ramane-Kabore-.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bio\">\n\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"e-link-in-bio__heading\">Raman\u00e9 Kabor\u00e9<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"e-link-in-bio__title\">Professeur en Sociologie, LASME,<\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"e-link-in-bio__description\">Universit\u00e9 Joseph Ki-Zerbo, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso<\/p>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icons has-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon is-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a aria-label=\"Email\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-link\" href=\"mailto:ramaneka@hotmail.com?subject=Contact%20from%20GA%20Bio\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-svg\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-envelope\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__ctas has-type-button\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/ramane-kabore\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener \" class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta is-type-button has-corners-rounded\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta-text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tVoir le profil complet\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ca44f9b ignoretoc elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ca44f9b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">\u00c9galement dans ce num\u00e9ro<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-08ab0bf elementor-grid-1 elementor-grid-tablet-1 elementor-grid-mobile-1 elementor-posts--thumbnail-top elementor-posts--show-avatar elementor-card-shadow-yes elementor-posts__hover-gradient elementor-widget elementor-widget-posts\" data-id=\"08ab0bf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_columns&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:27,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_columns_tablet&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_columns_mobile&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_laptop&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_tablet_extra&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_mobile_extra&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"posts.posts_cards_pp_authors\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-posts-container elementor-posts elementor-posts--skin-posts_cards_pp_authors elementor-grid\" role=\"list\">\n\t\t\t\t<article class=\"elementor-post elementor-grid-item post-15271 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-revue author-global-africa\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__card\">\n\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail__link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/numero-10-global-africa-savoirs-protecteurs-savoir-proteger\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\"><div class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1200\" height=\"1200\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Issue-10-\u2013-Global-AfricaProtective-Knowledges-The-Wisdom-to-Protect-.webp\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-15268\" alt=\"\" \/><\/div><\/a>\n\t\t        <div class=\"elementor-post__avatar\">\n            <img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/>        <\/div>\n        \t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__text\">\n\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-post__title\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/numero-10-global-africa-savoirs-protecteurs-savoir-proteger\/\" target=&quot;_blank&quot;>\n\t\t\t\tNum\u00e9ro 10 \u2013 Global Africa\u00ab Savoirs protecteurs, savoir prot\u00e9ger \u00bb\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\n\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/numero-10-global-africa-savoirs-protecteurs-savoir-proteger\/\" aria-label=\"En savoir plus sur Num\u00e9ro 10 \u2013 Global Africa\u00ab Savoirs protecteurs, savoir prot\u00e9ger \u00bb\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\tRead More \u00bb\t\t<\/a>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__meta-data\">\n\t\t\t        <span class=\"elementor-post-author\">\n\t\t\tGlobal Africa\t\t<\/span>\n        \t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/article>\n\t\t\t\t<article class=\"elementor-post elementor-grid-item post-15509 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-analyses-critiques author-karine-collette-fr author-ibrahima-ba-fr\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__card\">\n\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail__link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/terre-mere-trace-discursive-dune-emancipation-ecologique-au-nord-et-au-sud\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\"><div class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"527\" height=\"752\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.19.41.png\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-14990\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.19.41.png 527w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.19.41-210x300.png 210w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 527px) 100vw, 527px\" \/><\/div><\/a>\n\t\t        <div class=\"elementor-post__avatar\">\n            <img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/><img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/>        <\/div>\n        \t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__text\">\n\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-post__title\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/terre-mere-trace-discursive-dune-emancipation-ecologique-au-nord-et-au-sud\/\" target=&quot;_blank&quot;>\n\t\t\t\tTerre-M\u00e8re : trace discursive d\u2019une \u00e9mancipation \u00e9cologique au Nord et au Sud ?\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\n\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/terre-mere-trace-discursive-dune-emancipation-ecologique-au-nord-et-au-sud\/\" aria-label=\"En savoir plus sur Terre-M\u00e8re : trace discursive d\u2019une \u00e9mancipation \u00e9cologique au Nord et au Sud ?\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\tRead More \u00bb\t\t<\/a>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__meta-data\">\n\t\t\t        <span class=\"elementor-post-author\">\n\t\t\tKarine Collette, Ibrahima Ba\t\t<\/span>\n        \t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/article>\n\t\t\t\t<article class=\"elementor-post elementor-grid-item post-15517 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-champ author-cheikh-sadibou-sakho-fr author-masengesho-kamuzinzi-fr\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__card\">\n\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail__link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/we-heal-together-un-savoir-protecteur-par-excellence-qui-sinspire-de-lheritage-africain-ou-les-responsabilites-envers-soi-et-envers-autrui-sont-indissociables\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\"><div class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"527\" height=\"752\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.18.04.webp\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-14982\" alt=\"\" \/><\/div><\/a>\n\t\t        <div class=\"elementor-post__avatar\">\n            <img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Cheikh-Sadibou-Sakho-.webp' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Cheikh-Sadibou-Sakho-.webp' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/><img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/>        <\/div>\n        \t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__text\">\n\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-post__title\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/we-heal-together-un-savoir-protecteur-par-excellence-qui-sinspire-de-lheritage-africain-ou-les-responsabilites-envers-soi-et-envers-autrui-sont-indissociables\/\" target=&quot;_blank&quot;>\n\t\t\t\t\u00ab We Heal Together \u00bb, un savoir protecteur par excellence qui s\u2019inspire de l\u2019h\u00e9ritage africain, o\u00f9 les responsabilit\u00e9s envers soi et envers autrui sont indissociables\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\n\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/we-heal-together-un-savoir-protecteur-par-excellence-qui-sinspire-de-lheritage-africain-ou-les-responsabilites-envers-soi-et-envers-autrui-sont-indissociables\/\" aria-label=\"En savoir plus sur \u00ab We Heal Together \u00bb, un savoir protecteur par excellence qui s\u2019inspire de l\u2019h\u00e9ritage africain, o\u00f9 les responsabilit\u00e9s envers soi et envers autrui sont indissociables\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\tRead More \u00bb\t\t<\/a>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__meta-data\">\n\t\t\t        <span class=\"elementor-post-author\">\n\t\t\tCheikh Sadibou Sakho, Masengesho Kamuzinzi\t\t<\/span>\n        \t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/article>\n\t\t\t\t<article class=\"elementor-post elementor-grid-item post-15523 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-analyses-critiques author-cheikh-sadibou-sakho-fr author-ndeye-laity-ndiaye-fr\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__card\">\n\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail__link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/it-takes-a-village-reinventer-la-mise-a-labri-des-survivantes-de-violences-sexuelles-au-senegalpistes-a-partir-de-lexperience-du-centre-kullimaaroo-de-ziguinchor\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\"><div class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"527\" height=\"752\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.17.22.webp\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-14992\" alt=\"\" \/><\/div><\/a>\n\t\t        <div class=\"elementor-post__avatar\">\n            <img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Cheikh-Sadibou-Sakho-.webp' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Cheikh-Sadibou-Sakho-.webp' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/><img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/>        <\/div>\n        \t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__text\">\n\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-post__title\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/it-takes-a-village-reinventer-la-mise-a-labri-des-survivantes-de-violences-sexuelles-au-senegalpistes-a-partir-de-lexperience-du-centre-kullimaaroo-de-ziguinchor\/\" target=&quot;_blank&quot;>\n\t\t\t\tIt Takes a Village! (R\u00e9)inventer la mise \u00e0 l\u2019abri des survivantes de violences sexuelles au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal<br>Pistes \u00e0 partir de l\u2019exp\u00e9rience du centre Kullimaaroo de Ziguinchor\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\n\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/it-takes-a-village-reinventer-la-mise-a-labri-des-survivantes-de-violences-sexuelles-au-senegalpistes-a-partir-de-lexperience-du-centre-kullimaaroo-de-ziguinchor\/\" aria-label=\"En savoir plus sur It Takes a Village! (R\u00e9)inventer la mise \u00e0 l\u2019abri des survivantes de violences sexuelles au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal&lt;br&gt;Pistes \u00e0 partir de l\u2019exp\u00e9rience du centre Kullimaaroo de Ziguinchor\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\tRead More \u00bb\t\t<\/a>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__meta-data\">\n\t\t\t        <span class=\"elementor-post-author\">\n\t\t\tCheikh Sadibou Sakho, Nd\u00e8ye La\u00efty Ndiaye\t\t<\/span>\n        \t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/article>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e590199 e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"e590199\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3dd1381 elementor-widget elementor-widget-eael-adv-tabs\" data-id=\"3dd1381\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"eael-adv-tabs.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t        <div data-scroll-on-click=\"no\" data-scroll-speed=\"300\" id=\"eael-advance-tabs-3dd1381\" class=\"eael-advance-tabs eael-tabs-horizontal eael-tab-auto-active  responsive-vertical-layout\" data-tabid=\"3dd1381\">\n            <div class=\"eael-tabs-nav \">\n                <ul class=\"eael-tab-inline-icon\" role=\"tablist\">\n                                            <li id=\"pour-citer-larticle-\" class=\"active-default eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"true\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"pour-citer-larticle--tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <i class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i>                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Pour citer l&rsquo;article :<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"notes\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"notes-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <i class=\"fas fa-notes-medical\"><\/i>                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Notes<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"bibliographie\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"bibliographie-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <i class=\"fas fa-book\"><\/i>                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Bibliographie<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                    \n                                  <\/ul>\n            <\/div>\n            \n            <div class=\"eael-tabs-content\">\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"pour-citer-larticle--tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item active-default\" data-title-link=\"pour-citer-larticle--tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <h5><strong>APA<\/strong><\/h5>\n<p>Tamboura, M., Baron, C., &amp; Kabor\u00e9, R. (2024). La fabrique des innovations d\u2019en bas dans les services urbains d\u2019eau des quartiers pr\u00e9caires de Ouagadougou. \u00c9tudes de cas \u00e0 Goundrin et \u00e0 Boassa. Global Africa, (6), pp. 217-229.    <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/fxsf-rm05\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/fxsf-rm05<\/a><\/p>\n<h5><strong>MLA<\/strong><\/h5>\n<p>Tamboura, M., Baron, C., &amp; Kabor\u00e9, R. \u00ab\u00a0La fabrique des innovations d\u2019en bas dans les services urbains d\u2019eau des quartiers pr\u00e9caires de Ouagadougou. \u00c9tudes de cas \u00e0 Goundrin et \u00e0 Boassa\u00a0\u00bb. Global Africa, no. 6, 2024, p. 217-229. doi.org\/10.57832\/83sq-sj15  <\/p>\n<h5><strong>DOI<\/strong><\/h5>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/fxsf-rm05\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/fxsf-rm05<\/a><\/p>\n<p>\u00a9 2024 by author(s). This work is openly licensed via CC BY-NC 4.0 <\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"notes-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"notes-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <ol>\n<li>[1] Au Burkina Faso, les acteurs institutionnels et citadins parlent de \u00ab non loti \u00bb pour qualifier les quartiers dont les habitants ne disposent pas de titre foncier officiel, ce qui engendre le manque d\u2019acc\u00e8s aux services publics.<\/li>\n<li>[2] Depuis le nouveau d\u00e9coupage de 2012, Ouagadougou comprend 12 arrondissements, 55 secteurs et 7 communes rurales (INSD, 2022).<\/li>\n<li>[3] Chaque arrondissement de Ouagadougou est subdivis\u00e9 en secteurs. Boassa correspond au secteur 32 de l\u2019arrondissement 7. Goundrin se situe dans le secteur 43 de l\u2019arrondissement 10, \u00e0 cheval entre les quartiers pr\u00e9caires non lotis de Nioko II (secteur 41) et Tabtenga (secteur 45). <\/li>\n<li>[4] Le Burkina Faso n\u2019a pas choisi un partenariat public-priv\u00e9 et le service d\u2019eau potable est g\u00e9r\u00e9 par un op\u00e9rateur public, l\u2019ONEA. Mais dans certains non lotis, un contrat de d\u00e9l\u00e9gation a \u00e9t\u00e9 sign\u00e9 entre l\u2019ONEA et des d\u00e9l\u00e9gataires retenus suite \u00e0 un appel d\u2019offres (Hydroconseil, 2011). <\/li>\n<li>[5] YAAM veut dire dans la langue m\u00f5aga, la transmission du savoir. Autrement dit, \u00abYaam Solidarit\u00e9 \u00bb renvoie \u00e0 la transmission du savoir dans la solidarit\u00e9 en moor\u00e9. En anglais, le sigle signifie \u00abYoung African Architecture for Metropolitan \u00bb (YAAM). En fran\u00e7ais, ce qui renvoie \u00e0 \u00abJeunesse Africaine pour une Architecture Contemporaine \u00bb.  <\/li>\n<li>[6] Le PPAB concerne 55 villes d\u2019Afrique, des Cara\u00efbes et du Pacifique r\u00e9parties dans 34 pays.<\/li>\n<li>[7] Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Zoungrana Hamado Koudougou et Fr\u00e8res<\/li>\n<li>[8] Bureau d&rsquo;\u00e9tudes et de recherches appliqu\u00e9es<\/li>\n<li>[9] M\u00eame s\u2019ils ont b\u00e9n\u00e9fici\u00e9 de la construction de quelques bornes-fontaines par l\u2019ONEA.<\/li>\n<li>[10] Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 a \u00e9t\u00e9 cr\u00e9\u00e9e suite aux inondations de 2009 au Burkina Faso. Elle intervient dans plusieurs villes du pays, notamment \u00e0 Dori et \u00e0 Fada, et dans les non lotis de Ouagadougou pour am\u00e9liorer le cadre de vie et l\u2019habitat des populations. Elle compte 11 personnes.  <\/li>\n<li>[11] Ce projet sur la production sociale de l\u2019habitat comporte un volet \u00ab multi-pays \u00bb (Tiemtor\u00e9 et al., 2023) d\u2019o\u00f9 des collaborations avec le Groupe de recherche pour la r\u00e9alisation du d\u00e9veloppement rural en Guin\u00e9e-Bissau et l\u2019ONG UrbaSen au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal.<\/li>\n<li>[12] Autorit\u00e9 coutumi\u00e8re chez les Moss\u00e9.<\/li>\n<li>[13] La transition politique de 2015 a suivi le d\u00e9part de l\u2019ex-pr\u00e9sident Blaise Compaor\u00e9.<\/li>\n<li>[14] Cette r\u00e9flexion est en cours dans le cadre d\u2019une th\u00e8se sur la coproduction des services urbains d\u2019eau dans les quartiers pr\u00e9caires de Ouagadougou.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"bibliographie-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"bibliographie-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <p>Agence fran\u00e7aise de d\u00e9veloppement. (2014). L\u2019AFD et l\u2019intervention en quartiers pr\u00e9caires, retours d\u2019exp\u00e9riences et recommandations strat\u00e9giques, https:\/\/issuu.com\/objectif-developpement\/docs\/afd-quartiers-precaires-vf<\/p>\n<p>Ahmed, F., Johnson, D., Hashaikeh, R., Hilal, N. (2023). Barriers to Innovation in Water Treatment. Water, 15(773), 11.   https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/w15040773\n <\/p>\n<p>Akrich, M., Callon, M., Latour, B. (1988). \u00c0 quoi tient le succ\u00e8s des innovations, l\u2019art de l\u2019int\u00e9ressement, g\u00e9rer et comprendre. Annales des Mines, 14-29.   https:\/\/halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr\/halshs-00081741<\/p>\n<p>Ambrosino, J., Masson, D., Abi Akle, A., Legardeur, J. (2017, 21-25 Aug). Fostering Collaborative Project Emergence Through Divergence of Opinion [21st International Conference on Engineering Design, ICED17, The Design Society]. The University of British Columbia.   https:\/\/hal.science\/hal-01577761<\/p>\n<p>Badillo, P.-Y. (2013). Les th\u00e9ories de l\u2019innovation revisit\u00e9es : une lecture communicationnelle et interdisciplinaire de l\u2019innovation ? Du mod\u00e8le \u00ab \u00c9metteur \u00bb au mod\u00e8le communicationnel. Les enjeux de l\u2019information et de la communication, 1(14\/1), 19-34. DOI:10.3917\/enic.014.0019 ou https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/316857426<\/p>\n<p>Baregheh, A., Rowley, J., Sambrook, S. (2009). Towards a multidisciplinary definition of innovation. Management Decision, 47(8), 1323-1339.   https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1108\/00251740910984578<\/p>\n<p>Baron, C., Bonnassieux, A. (2021). Quelles politiques publiques pour les quartiers irr\u00e9guliers des villes africaines ? Entre lotissement et laisser-faire. Le cas de Ouagadougou au Burkina Faso. Annales de g\u00e9ographie, 2(738), 22-49.     https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-annales-de-geographie-2021-2-page-22.htm<\/p>\n<p>Baron C., Bonnassieux A., Bontianti A. (2016). Eau des villes, assainissement et pr\u00e9carit\u00e9s : Des r\u00e9alit\u00e9s contrast\u00e9es \u00e0 Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso et Niamey, Niger, Paris, Editions AFD, Notes techniques\/Collection recherches, n\u00b019, Sept 2016, 277p.  http:\/\/librairie.afd.fr\/nt-19-eau-burkina-niger\/<\/p>\n<p>Beaud, S., &amp; Weber, F. (2010). Guide de l\u2019enqu\u00eate de terrain, produire et analyser des donn\u00e9es ethnographiques. \u00c9d. La D\u00e9couverte,   <\/p>\n<p>Ben Yakoub, S., &amp; Achelhi, h. (2021). Fondements th\u00e9oriques et importance de l\u2019innovation : Regards des auteurs au cours des ann\u00e9es. Revue internationale du chercheur, 2(1), 60-84. <\/p>\n<p>Boer, H., &amp; Pendant, W.-E. (2001). Innovation, what innovation ? A comparison between product, process and organizational innovation. Int. J. Technology Management, 22(1\/2\/3), 83-107. http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1504\/IJTM.2001.002956<\/p>\n<p>Bouazza, A., &amp; Nafil, Y. (2019). R\u00f4le de l\u2019innovation sociale dans le d\u00e9veloppement socio\u00e9conomique au Maroc. Premi\u00e8res constatations \u00e0 partir de la litt\u00e9rature, et \u00e9tude de cas de 4 associations socialement innovantes. [7th CIRIEC International Research Conference on Social Economy, 6-9 June].    http:\/\/doi.org\/10.25518\/ciriec.wp201907\n <\/p>\n<p>Boyer, F. (2010). Croissance urbaine, statut migratoire et choix r\u00e9sidentiels des ouagalais : vers une insertion urbaine s\u00e9gr\u00e9g\u00e9e ? Revue Tiers Monde, (201), pp. 47-64.   http:\/\/hal.ird.fr\/ird-00475201<\/p>\n<p>Cloutier, J. (2003). Qu\u2019est-ce que l\u2019innovation sociale ? Cahier du CRISES. Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al.    https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/272566640\n <\/p>\n<p>Dauphin, S. (2012). Exp\u00e9rimenter, innover : d\u2019o\u00f9 \u00e7a vient ? Comment cela fonctionne ? Informations sociales, 6(174), 8-11.    https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-informations-sociales-2012-6-page-8.htm\n <\/p>\n<p>Deboulet, A. (2016). Repenser les quartiers pr\u00e9caires. Agence fran\u00e7aise de d\u00e9veloppement, 13, 276 p.   http:\/\/librairie.afd.fr<\/p>\n<p>Ela, J.-M. (1998). Innovations sociales et renaissance de l\u2019Afrique noire, les d\u00e9fis du monde d\u2019en-bas. \u00c9d. L\u2019Harmattan.<\/p>\n<p>Greenhalgh, T., Robert, G., Macfarlane, F., Bate, P., Olivia Kyriakidou, O. (2004). Diffusion of Innovations in Service Organizations: Systematic Review and Recommendations. Milbank Quarterly, 4(82), 581-629.   https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/8133844\n <\/p>\n<p>Guigma, L. (2017). Vivre dans le non loti de Ouagadougou : processus de marchandage foncier entre citadins, chefs traditionnels et autorit\u00e9s publiques. [Th\u00e8se de doctorat]. Universit\u00e9 Paris 8, Vincennes-Saint-Denis.   <\/p>\n<p>Hardy, S., &amp; Poupeau, F. (2014). L\u2019auto-organisation de la gestion urbaine de l\u2019eau. La fonction des coop\u00e9ratives dans le grand syst\u00e8me de La Paz et d\u2019El Alto. Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, 203(3), 86-105.    https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-actes-de-la-recherche-en-sciences-sociales-2014-3-page-86.htm<\/p>\n<p>Hydroconseil. (2011). Rapport d\u2019\u00e9valuation du projet pilote AEP quartiers p\u00e9riph\u00e9riques de Ouagadougou, rapport final. https:\/\/www.hydroconseil.com\/fr\/references-2\/24-africa-2\/309-burkina-faso-fr<\/p>\n<p>Institut national de la statistique et de la d\u00e9mographie (2022, d\u00e9cembre), Cinqui\u00e8me recensement g\u00e9n\u00e9ral de la population. Monographie de la commune de Ouagadougou. www.insd.bf  <\/p>\n<p>Institut national de la statistique et de la d\u00e9mographie. (2022, d\u00e9cembre). R\u00e9sultats du 5e recensement g\u00e9n\u00e9ral de la population : volume 2. Caracteristiques des m\u00e9nages et de la population. www.insd.bf    <\/p>\n<p>Jaglin, S. (2012). Services en r\u00e9seaux et villes africaines : l\u2019universalit\u00e9 par d\u2019autres voies ? L\u2019Espace g\u00e9ographique, tome 41(1), 51-66.   https:\/\/shs.hal.science\/halshs-03937117<\/p>\n<p>Kydyrbekova, A., Meiramkulova, K., Tolysbayev, B., Kydyrbekova, A. (2022). Investigation of Different Water-Related Innovation Aspects within the Past Three Decades: A Case Study of Kazakhstan and Neighboring Countries. Economies, 22.   https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/economies10080190<\/p>\n<p>Lavigne Delville, P., &amp; Schlimmer, S. (2020). Saisir l\u2019action publique en Afrique \u00e0 travers les instruments. Revue internationale de politique compar\u00e9e, 27(2), 9-32.   https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-internationale-de-politique-comparee-2020-2-page-9.htm<\/p>\n<p>Misra, S., &amp; Kingdom, B. (2019). Citywide Inclusive Water Supply: Adopting Off-Grid Solutions to Achieve the SDGs. World Bank.  <\/p>\n<p>Mvulirwenande, S., &amp; Wehn, U. (2020). Fostering water innovation in Africa through virtual incubation: Insights from the Dutch VIA Water programme. Environmental Science and Policy, 114(2020), 119-127.   https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.envsci.2020.07.025<\/p>\n<p>Ndongo, M., &amp; Klein, J.-L. (2020). Les innovations sociales en Afrique subsaharienne : la place des communaut\u00e9s et des territoires locaux. ANSERJ, 11(2), 56-81. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.29173\/cjnser.2020v11n2a379<\/p>\n<p>Noailles, P., (2011). De l\u2019innovation \u00e0 l\u2019innovateur. Pour une approche structuraliste de l\u2019innovation. La Revue des Sciences de Gestion, 1-2(247-248), 13-28.    https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-des-sciences-de-gestion-2011-1-page-13.htm<\/p>\n<p>O\u2019Callaghan, P. (2020). Dynamics of Water Innovation Insights into the rate of adoption, diffusion and success of emerging water technologies globally. [PhD thesis, Wageningen University], https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18174\/536755  <\/p>\n<p>Olivier de Sardan, J.-P. (1995). Anthropologie et d\u00e9veloppement. Essai en socio-anthropologie du changement social. \u00c9d. Karthala.<\/p>\n<p>Olivier de Sardan, J.-P. (2008). La rigueur du qualitatif. Les contraintes empiriques de l\u2019interpr\u00e9tation socio-anthropologique. Bruylant-Academia.<\/p>\n<p>Olivier de Sardan, J.-P. (2022).\u2009 \u00ab Compter sur ses propres forces \u00bb. Face \u00e0 la d\u00e9pendance \u00e0 l\u2019aide, promouvoir les experts contextuels dans les politiques publiques en Afrique. Global Africa, 1(1), 96-111. https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/369112527<\/p>\n<p>Olivier de Sardan, J.-P., &amp; Vari-Lavoisier, I. (2022). Introduction : pour une approche comparatiste des mod\u00e8les voyageurs. In Les mod\u00e8les voyageurs : une ing\u00e9nierie sociale du d\u00e9veloppement (pp. 7-28), Revue Internationale des \u00c9tudes en D\u00e9veloppement, 248. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4000\/ried.280<\/p>\n<p>Rapport Mondial des Nations Unies sur la mise en valeur des ressources en eau. (2022). EAUX SOUTERRAINES, rendre visible l\u2019invisible, UNESCO, p. 270.<\/p>\n<p>Richez-Battesti, N., Petrella, F., &amp; Vallade, D. (2012). L\u2019innovation sociale, une notion aux usages pluriels : Quels enjeux et d\u00e9fis pour l\u2019analyse ? Innovations, 38, 15-36.   https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3917\/inno.038.0015<\/p>\n<p>Robineau, O. (2014). Les quartiers non lotis : espaces de l\u2019entre-deux dans la ville burkinab\u00e9. Carnets de G\u00e9ographes, rubrique \u00ab Carnets de recherche \u00bb, 7.   https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4000\/cdg.478<\/p>\n<p>Rosillon, F. (2016). L\u2019eau dans les pays en d\u00e9veloppement, retour d\u2019exp\u00e9riences de gestion int\u00e9gr\u00e9e et participative avec les acteurs locaux. \u00c9d. Johanet.   <\/p>\n<p>Schumpeter, J. A. (1999). Th\u00e9orie de l\u2019\u00e9volution \u00e9conomique : recherches sur le profit, le cr\u00e9dit, l\u2019int\u00e9r\u00eat et le cycle de la conjoncture. Dalloz (\u0153uvre originale publi\u00e9e en 1911).  <\/p>\n<p>Sory, I. (2019). Les politiques publiques fonci\u00e8res dans l\u2019impasse \u00e0 Ouagadougou. Afrique Contemporaine, 1-2(269-270), 135-154.   https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-afrique-contemporaine-2019-1-page-135.htm<\/p>\n<p>Tiemtor\u00e9, S., Dadjouari, L., Keita, P. A., Leporcq, P., Coly, A., Moles, O., Chamodot, M., Hinschberger, B. (2023). Habiter et mieux vivre dans les non-lotis ! F\u00e9d\u00e9rer les habitant.es du quartier pr\u00e9caire de Boassa (Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou) pour leur donner acc\u00e8s \u00e0 un habitat digne. CRAterre \u00e9d.   <\/p>\n<p>Wehn, U., &amp; Montalvo, C. (2018). Exploring the dynamics of water innovation: Foundations for water innovation studies. Journal of Cleaner Production, 171, 1-19.   https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.10.118<\/p>\n<p>Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods. Sixth edition. 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class=\"eael-creative-button-wrapper\">\n\n            <a class=\"eael-creative-button eael-creative-button--default eael-cb-icon-position-\" href=\"#elementor-action%3Aaction%3Doff_canvas%3Aopen%26settings%3DeyJpZCI6ImZjMzRiODYiLCJkaXNwbGF5TW9kZSI6Im9wZW4ifQ%3D%3D\" data-text=\"Allez-y !\">\n            \t    \n                <div class=\"creative-button-inner\">\n\n                    \n                    <span class=\"cretive-button-text\">Table des mati\u00e8res<\/span>\n\n                                    <\/div>\n\t                        <\/a>\n        <\/div>\n        \t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Num\u00e9ro 06 &#8211; Analyses critiques This post is also available in: English Fran\u00e7ais (French) T\u00c9L\u00c9CHARGER EN PDF 06.2024Les administrations africaines : d\u00e9colonialit\u00e9, endog\u00e9n\u00e9it\u00e9 et innovation Publi\u00e9 le : 20 juin 2024 ISSN: 3020-0458 T\u00c9L\u00c9CHARGER LE NUM\u00c9RO PDF Abstract R\u00e9sum\u00e9 Muhtasari \u0645\u0644\u062e\u0635 Research into the supply of drinking water in urban areas in the Global South has focused on inequalities of access in precarious neighborhoods. The explanatory factors put forward refer to the technical deficiencies of the centralized water network (leakage rate, continuity of service, lack of financial and human resources to maintain infrastructures, etc.) as well as to what is considered to be poor governance. Faced with the limitations of the conventional model, local innovations, initiated by various types of stakeholders (individuals, groups), have emerged outside of the centralized network, hence the term &#8220;off-grid&#8221;. Long regarded as transitory, do-it-yourself solutions, they are now attracting particular attention and questioning the relevance of the single centralized network model that has been promoted internationally. To what extent can we speak of innovations? While the emphasis is once again put on technical aspects (mini-networks, adaptability of infrastructures to the structure of precarious neighborhoods, etc.) and decentralized modes of governance (proximity, delegation to local operators or associations, pricing adapted to the context, etc.), there are few works that question local dynamics, particularly bottom-up innovations, beyond these technical and regulatory dimensions. In order to present these dynamics of change from a different angle, we have analyzed innovatives experiences in the precarious neighborhoods of Goundrin and Boassa in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), based on qualitative surveys and case studies. First and foremost, our article identifies the plurality of meanings conferred to the term &#8220;innovation&#8221; as applied to the drinking water sector, thus highlighting the complexity of the processes involved, and this beyond the technical and governance dimensions. In addition, we discuss the endogenous dimension of these bottom-up innovations, questioning their interactions with donor-funded projects from above concerning access to water in precarious neighborhoods in African cities. Then, we analyze two case studies, the Goundrin and Boassa neighborhoods, to explain the conditions of emergence of these innovations carried out by &#8220;contextual experts&#8221; from these neighborhoods and motivated by logics of commitment. These are Y.O., an individual informal operator, and the Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 association, which are helping to improve access to water services by setting up residents\u2019 collectives, mini-water networks, day-to-day do-it-yourself projects and different operating methods. While the commitment of these stakeholders is initially based on a logic of action on a local scale, the spread of these innovations generates unforeseen events that can result in a shift from a logic of cooperation and solidarity to one of competition and profitability. Would institutionalization be a guarantee of the preservation of collective action logics with the aim of achieving social and territorial justice? This article makes an original contribution to the literature on the &#8220;off-grid&#8221;, which has developed strongly in water services studies in recent years. Keywords Bottom-up innovation, contextual expert, urban water services, decentralized systems \u2013 off-grid, Ouagadougou Les recherches conduites sur la fourniture d\u2019eau potable en milieu urbain dans le Sud global mettent surtout l\u2019accent sur les in\u00e9galit\u00e9s d\u2019acc\u00e8s dans les quartiers pr\u00e9caires. Les facteurs explicatifs avanc\u00e9s renvoient aux d\u00e9ficiences techniques du r\u00e9seau d\u2019eau centralis\u00e9 (taux de fuite, continuit\u00e9 du service, manque de moyens financiers et humains pour entretenir les infrastructures, etc.) ainsi qu\u2019\u00e0 une gouvernance consid\u00e9r\u00e9e comme d\u00e9ficiente. Face aux limites du mod\u00e8le conventionnel, des innovations locales, \u00e0 l\u2019initiative de diff\u00e9rents types d\u2019acteurs (individuels, collectifs), ont \u00e9merg\u00e9 en dehors du r\u00e9seau centralis\u00e9 d\u2019o\u00f9 le qualificatif de off-grid. Longtemps consid\u00e9r\u00e9es comme des solutions transitoires, comme du bricolage, elles font aujourd\u2019hui l\u2019objet d\u2019une attention particuli\u00e8re et questionnent la pertinence du mod\u00e8le unique de r\u00e9seau centralis\u00e9 qui a \u00e9t\u00e9 v\u00e9hicul\u00e9 internationalement. Dans quelle mesure peut-on parler d\u2019innovations ? Alors que l\u2019accent est \u00e0 nouveau mis sur les dimensions techniques (mini-r\u00e9seaux, adaptabilit\u00e9 des infrastructures \u00e0 la structuration des quartiers pr\u00e9caires, etc.) et les modes de gouvernance, d\u00e9centralis\u00e9s (proximit\u00e9, d\u00e9l\u00e9gation \u00e0 des op\u00e9rateurs locaux ou \u00e0 des associations, modalit\u00e9s de tarification adapt\u00e9es au contexte, etc.), rares sont les travaux qui interrogent les dynamiques locales, notamment les innovations d\u2019en bas, au-del\u00e0 de ces dimensions techniques et de r\u00e9gulation. Afin de pr\u00e9senter sous un autre angle ces dynamiques de changement, nous avons analys\u00e9 des exp\u00e9riences innovantes \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle des quartiers pr\u00e9caires de Goundrin et de Boassa \u00e0 Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) \u00e0 partir d\u2019enqu\u00eates qualitatives et d\u2019\u00e9tudes de cas. Notre article identifie tout d\u2019abord la pluralit\u00e9 des sens conf\u00e9r\u00e9s au terme \u00ab innovation \u00bb appliqu\u00e9 au secteur de l\u2019eau potable, ce qui permet de mettre en \u00e9vidence la complexit\u00e9 des processus en jeu, au-del\u00e0 des dimensions techniques et de gouvernance. Par ailleurs, nous discutons la dimension endog\u00e8ne de ces innovations d\u2019en bas, en questionnant leurs interactions avec des projets d\u2019en haut financ\u00e9s par des bailleurs et portant sur l\u2019acc\u00e8s \u00e0 l\u2019eau dans les quartiers pr\u00e9caires des villes africaines. Nous analysons ensuite deux \u00e9tudes de cas, les quartiers de Goundrin et de Boassa, pour expliciter les conditions d\u2019\u00e9mergence de ces innovations port\u00e9es par des \u00ab experts contextuels \u00bb issus de ces quartiers et motiv\u00e9s par des logiques d\u2019engagement. Il s\u2019agit de Y.O., un op\u00e9rateur informel individuel, et de l\u2019association Yaam Solidarit\u00e9 qui, par la mise en place de collectifs d\u2019habitants, de mini-r\u00e9seaux d\u2019eau, des bricolages au quotidien et des modes op\u00e9ratoires diff\u00e9rents, contribuent \u00e0 l\u2019am\u00e9lioration de l\u2019acc\u00e8s aux services d\u2019eau. Si l\u2019engagement de ces acteurs se situe au d\u00e9part dans une logique d\u2019action \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle locale, la diffusion de ces innovations engendre des impr\u00e9vus qui peuvent se traduire par le passage de logiques de coop\u00e9ration et de solidarit\u00e9 vers des logiques de concurrence et de rentabilit\u00e9. L\u2019institutionnalisation serait-elle une garantie de pr\u00e9servation des logiques d\u2019action collective avec pour finalit\u00e9 une justice sociale et territoriale ? Cet article contribue donc, de mani\u00e8re originale, \u00e0 la litt\u00e9rature sur le \u00ab hors r\u00e9seau \u00bb (off-grid) qui s\u2019est fortement d\u00e9velopp\u00e9e dans les \u00e9tudes sur les services d\u2019eau ces derni\u00e8res ann\u00e9es. Mots-cl\u00e9s Innovation d\u2019en bas, expert contextuel, services urbains d\u2019eau,<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":69,"featured_media":6281,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"elementor_header_footer","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[200],"tags":[],"issues3":[],"post_folder":[],"ppma_author":[458,457,459],"class_list":["post-10881","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-analyses-critiques","author-mairama-tamboura-fr","author-catherine-baron-fr","author-ramane-kabore-fr"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.5 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>La fabrique des innovations d\u2019en bas dans les services urbains d\u2019eau des quartiers pr\u00e9caires de Ouagadougou \u00c9tudes de cas \u00e0 Goundrin et \u00e0 Boassa | Global Africa<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"La fabrique des 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Tamboura","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"fr-FR","@id":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura-.webpddf5105d3722c581f6e1f15beb7129dc","url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura-.webp","contentUrl":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura-.webp","caption":"Ma\u00eframa Tamboura"},"description":"Ma\u00eframa Tamboura is a doctoral student in the Department of Sociology at Joseph Ki-Zerbo University of Ouagadougou (UO) in Burkina Faso. She completed her master's degree at the Catholic University of West Africa in Bobo-Dioulasso (UCAO-UUB), focusing on social perceptions and household waste management in the city of Ouagadougou. She then joined the le Laboratoire Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Mobilit\u00e9 et Environnement (LASME) at the UO Graduate School to pursue her PhD. Her research explores the co-production of urban drinking water services in the informal settlements of Ouagadougou from a socio-anthropological perspective. In her studies, she emphasizes the commons approach to analyze issues related to the governance of water services beyond centralized management models.","url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/author\/mairamatamboura\/"}]}},"acf":[],"authors":[{"term_id":458,"user_id":0,"is_guest":1,"slug":"mairama-tamboura-fr","display_name":"Ma\u00eframa Tamboura","avatar_url":{"url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura-.webp","url2x":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Mairama-Tamboura-.webp"},"author_category":"1","exclude_author":"","main-organisation":"","country_of_org":"","field_of_work":"","first_name":"","last_name":"","user_url":"","job_title":"","description":""},{"term_id":457,"user_id":0,"is_guest":1,"slug":"catherine-baron-fr","display_name":"Catherine Baron","avatar_url":{"url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Catherine-Baron-.png","url2x":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Catherine-Baron-.png"},"author_category":"1","exclude_author":"","main-organisation":"","country_of_org":"","field_of_work":"","first_name":"","last_name":"","user_url":"","job_title":"","description":""},{"term_id":459,"user_id":0,"is_guest":1,"slug":"ramane-kabore-fr","display_name":"Raman\u00e9 Kabor\u00e9","avatar_url":{"url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Ramane-Kabore-.webp","url2x":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Ramane-Kabore-.webp"},"author_category":"1","exclude_author":"","main-organisation":"","country_of_org":"","field_of_work":"","first_name":"","last_name":"","user_url":"","job_title":"","description":""}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/10881","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/69"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=10881"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/10881\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/6281"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=10881"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=10881"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=10881"},{"taxonomy":"issues3","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/issues3?post=10881"},{"taxonomy":"post_folder","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/post_folder?post=10881"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/ppma_author?post=10881"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}