{"id":10025,"date":"2024-12-01T13:36:26","date_gmt":"2024-12-01T13:36:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/actualites\/lafrique-et-le-monde-a-lheure-virale-donner-vie-au-virus-et-faire-vivre-la-viralite\/"},"modified":"2025-09-24T12:49:15","modified_gmt":"2025-09-24T12:49:15","slug":"lafrique-et-le-monde-a-lheure-virale-donner-vie-au-virus-et-faire-vivre-la-viralite","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/lafrique-et-le-monde-a-lheure-virale-donner-vie-au-virus-et-faire-vivre-la-viralite\/","title":{"rendered":"L&rsquo;Afrique et le monde \u00e0 l&rsquo;heure virale : donner vie au virus et faire vivre la viralit\u00e9"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"10025\" class=\"elementor elementor-10025\" data-elementor-post-type=\"post\">\n\t\t\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-036a802 e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"036a802\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d1d7910 e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-child\" data-id=\"d1d7910\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7c21c9f elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"7c21c9f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Num\u00e9ro 02 - Introduction<\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-62d8bc1 elementor-author-box--link-yes ignoretoc elementor-author-box--avatar-yes elementor-author-box--name-yes elementor-widget elementor-widget-author-box\" data-id=\"62d8bc1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"author-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-author-box\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/author\/frederic-le-marcis-fr\/\" class=\"elementor-author-box__avatar\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Frederic-Le-Marcis-.png\" alt=\"Image de Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Le Marcis\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-author-box__text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/author\/frederic-le-marcis-fr\/\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h5 class=\"elementor-author-box__name\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Le Marcis\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/h5>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-author-box__button elementor-button elementor-size-xs\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/author\/frederic-le-marcis-fr\/\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTous les articles de l'auteur\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6958538 ignoretoc elementor-widget elementor-widget-author-box\" data-id=\"6958538\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"author-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-author-box\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/noemi-tousignant\" class=\"elementor-author-box__avatar\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Noemi-Tousignant-.webp\" alt=\"Image de No\u00e9mi Tousignant\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-author-box__text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/noemi-tousignant\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h5 class=\"elementor-author-box__name\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNo\u00e9mi Tousignant\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/h5>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-author-box__button elementor-button elementor-size-xs\" href=\"\/authors\/noemi-tousignant\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTous les articles de l'auteur\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5b4f26d ignoretoc elementor-widget elementor-widget-author-box\" data-id=\"5b4f26d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"author-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-author-box\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/josiane-tantchou\" class=\"elementor-author-box__avatar\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Josiane-Tantchou--225x300.png\" alt=\"Image de Josiane Tantchou\" loading=\"lazy\">\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-author-box__text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/josiane-tantchou\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h5 class=\"elementor-author-box__name\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJosiane Tantchou\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/h5>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-author-box__button elementor-button elementor-size-xs\" href=\"\/authors\/josiane-tantchou\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tTous les articles de l'auteur\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div 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elementor-share-buttons--view-icon elementor-share-buttons--shape-circle elementor-share-buttons--skin-gradient elementor-grid-0 elementor-share-buttons--color-official elementor-widget elementor-widget-share-buttons\" data-id=\"5eeda1f\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"share-buttons.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-grid\" role=\"list\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-grid-item\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-share-btn elementor-share-btn_facebook\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"Partager sur facebook\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-share-btn__icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fab fa-facebook\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-grid-item\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div 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tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"Partager sur whatsapp\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-share-btn__icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fab fa-whatsapp\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-grid-item\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-share-btn elementor-share-btn_email\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"Partager sur email\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-share-btn__icon\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i class=\"fas fa-envelope\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-297d7b5 elementor-align-left elementor-widget__width-inherit elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"297d7b5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/pr6g-ky78\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-file-pdf\"><\/i>\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">T\u00c9L\u00c9CHARGER EN PDF<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2724b9e e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-child\" data-id=\"2724b9e\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f03e25c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"f03e25c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><a href=\"\/?issues=Africa%20and%20the%20World%20in%20Viral%20Time%20\">02.2022<br>L\u2019Afrique et le monde \u00e0 l\u2019heure virale<\/a><\/h4>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b2b07a4 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b2b07a4\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Publi\u00e9 le : 16 d\u00e9cembre 2022<br><\/strong><strong>ISSN: 3020-0458<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-38d84bf elementor-align-center elementor-widget__width-inherit elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-button\" data-id=\"38d84bf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"button.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-button-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm\" href=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Global-Africa-Issue-02-Africa-and-the-World-in-Viral-Time.pdf\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-button-text\">T\u00c9L\u00c9CHARGER LE NUM\u00c9RO PDF<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b5db791 elementor-widget elementor-widget-image\" data-id=\"b5db791\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"image.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/GA-Issue-07-1.jpg\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1240\" height=\"1754\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa-Issue-02-African-knowlewdge-against-the-pandemic.jpg\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-1045\" alt=\"CERFIG an African Health Research of Excellence\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa-Issue-02-African-knowlewdge-against-the-pandemic.jpg 1240w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa-Issue-02-African-knowlewdge-against-the-pandemic-212x300.jpg 212w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa-Issue-02-African-knowlewdge-against-the-pandemic-724x1024.jpg 724w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa-Issue-02-African-knowlewdge-against-the-pandemic-768x1086.jpg 768w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa-Issue-02-African-knowlewdge-against-the-pandemic-1086x1536.jpg 1086w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1240px) 100vw, 1240px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ae2d51c e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"ae2d51c\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3c8215e e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-child\" data-id=\"3c8215e\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fa2f8e7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-eael-adv-tabs\" data-id=\"fa2f8e7\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"eael-adv-tabs.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t        <div data-scroll-on-click=\"no\" data-scroll-speed=\"300\" id=\"eael-advance-tabs-fa2f8e7\" class=\"eael-advance-tabs eael-tabs-horizontal eael-tab-auto-active  responsive-vertical-layout\" data-tabid=\"fa2f8e7\">\n            <div class=\"eael-tabs-nav \">\n                <ul class=\"eael-tab-inline-icon\" role=\"tablist\">\n                                            <li id=\"abstract\" class=\"active-default eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"true\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"abstract-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg\" alt=\"\">\n                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Abstract<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"rsum\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"rsum-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Flag_of_France.svg\" alt=\"\">\n                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >R\u00e9sum\u00e9<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"muhtasari\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"muhtasari-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Flag_of_Kenya.svg\" alt=\"\">\n                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Muhtasari<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"4\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <svg xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"900\" height=\"600\" viewBox=\"0 0 900 600\"><path id=\"green\" d=\"m0 600h900v-600h-900z\" fill=\"#005430\" stroke-width=\".375\"><\/path><g id=\"white\" transform=\"scale(.375)\"><g id=\"shahada\"><g transform=\"matrix(7.3042,0,0,-6.7531,1800,635.53)\"><path d=\"m0 0c-0.023 4.162-1.516 15.373-1.895 19.134-0.378 3.761-0.759 7.173-0.667 7.972 0.09 0.771 1.187-1.072 1.767-1.221 0.3 0.065 0.166 1.229-0.379 2.223-0.369 0.675-1.627 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4.16 1.015 2.218 2.73 6.43 4.412 7.997 0.646 0.604 1.314 1.082 1.964 1.369 0 0 1.149 0.415 2.206-0.332 0.379-0.27 0.662-0.654 0.841-1.084 0.417-0.987 0.91-2.243 1.918-3.295 1.776-1.85 4.632-1.468 6.774-0.392 2.139 1.077 3.231 2.757 3.707 4.753 0.812 3.415 0.682 6.914 0.527 10.022-0.179 3.547-0.703 7.172-1.001 11.013-0.096 1.235-0.283 2.953-0.498 4.816 2.086-2.604 4.252-5.247 5.566-6.692 0.453-0.499 0.931-1.053 1.422-1.638 0.392-5.814 0.769-13.089 0.968-16.142 0.197-3.042 0.07-6.866 0.047-7.531-0.024-0.665 0.318-0.551 0.809 0.925 0.658 1.981 1.071 7.176 0.927 10.621-0.086 2.047-0.275 5.779-0.479 9.309 1.619-2.081 3.156-4.182 4.156-5.6 1.778-2.518 3.411-5.512 3.982-7.38 0.57-1.87 0.633-2.424 0.744-2.757s0.602 1.031 0.524 3.168\" fill=\"#fff\"><\/path><\/g><\/g><path id=\"sword\" d=\"m1558.8 1170.7c-1.1729-3.3554-4.7649-5.8169-9.0607-5.8169s-7.8806 2.4615-9.0608 5.8169h-40.678c-0.4105-4.5128-0.01-9.0477 1.2683-13.465l83.981-0.051 2.3385 3.9414c2.1113 3.5531 4.7797 6.7619 7.8731 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                                <\/ul>\n            <\/div>\n            \n            <div class=\"eael-tabs-content\">\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"abstract-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item active-default\" data-title-link=\"abstract-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <div id=\"bgLayers_comp-llnt573c1\" class=\"MW5IWV\">\n<div id=\"bgMedia_comp-llnt573c1\" class=\"VgO9Yg\">\/\/\/<\/div>\n<\/div>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"rsum-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"rsum-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <div id=\"bgLayers_comp-llnq4c3z5\" class=\"MW5IWV\">\n<div id=\"bgMedia_comp-llnq4c3z5\" class=\"VgO9Yg\">\/\/\/<\/div>\n<\/div>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"muhtasari-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"muhtasari-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <p>\/\/\/\n <\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <p>\/\/\/<\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t                    <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ff89d56 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"ff89d56\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>\u00c0 la fin de l\u2019ann\u00e9e 2019, le nouveau coronavirus (SarsCov-2) s\u2019est rapidement propag\u00e9, mettant en exergue la densit\u00e9 plan\u00e9taire des r\u00e9seaux de mobilit\u00e9 humaine et informationnelle. Il s\u2019est \u00ab associ\u00e9 \u00bb (Latour, 2020) de mani\u00e8re tr\u00e8s diff\u00e9rente, selon les pays, quartiers ou foyers, \u00e0 des dispositifs de d\u00e9tection, de prise en charge et de contr\u00f4le, mais aussi \u00e0 des march\u00e9s du travail et de denr\u00e9es \u00ab essentiels \u00bb, ou \u00e0 des relations, formelles ou familiales, d\u2019\u00e9change, d\u2019obligation et de care. Le virus est, d\u2019un point de vue biologique, une entit\u00e9 liminaire et relationnelle, viable, mais non vivante hors des cellules d\u2019un autre organisme.<br>Il \u00ab prend vie \u00bb non par l\u2019attaque virale, mais lorsque son h\u00f4te entre en relation avec lui (Napier, 2012 ; Brives, 2020), ce qui conduit \u00e0 la question de savoir comment on fait vivre le virus et la viralit\u00e9. La question du virus appelle une r\u00e9flexion multidimensionnelle et selon plusieurs \u00e9chelles. Elle est \u00e0 la fois biosociale et \u00e9cosociale. Biosociale, elle \u00e9voque les relations spatiales et sociales de la transmission virale et celles qui donnent \u00ab virulence \u00bb \u00e0 l\u2019infection (Lowe, 2017). \u00c9cosociale, elle invite \u00e0 penser \u00e9galement les relations entre esp\u00e8ces et habitats qui pourraient faire \u00ab \u00e9merger \u00bb de nouveaux virus, elles-m\u00eames indissociables des \u00e9conomies extractives globales. La question du virus appelle aussi une r\u00e9flexion \u00e9pist\u00e9mologique \u2013 par quels modes de savoirs et de d\u00e9tection fait-on entrer le virus dans les relations sociales et politiques \u2013 reconfigurant ainsi des modalit\u00e9s ant\u00e9rieures d\u2019incorporation et de gestion de la maladie, et une r\u00e9flexion socioculturelle \u2013 la viralit\u00e9 que l\u2019on fait vivre par les r\u00e9cits sur les agents pathog\u00e8nes et les \u00e9closions \u00e9pid\u00e9miques (Wald, 2008 ; Quammen, 2015), ainsi que par les m\u00e9taphores (les virus informatiques, mais aussi les migrants et les \u00e9trangers comme vecteurs viraux).         <\/p>\n<p>Le continent africain a ainsi longtemps \u00e9t\u00e9 pens\u00e9 comme terrain de latence et d\u2019\u00e9mergence virale (Auray &amp; Keck, 2015). L\u2019exp\u00e9rience plan\u00e9taire de la pand\u00e9mie de Covid-19 nous invite \u00e0 repenser l\u2019Afrique dans le monde, et le monde \u00e0 partir de l\u2019Afrique. Longtemps pens\u00e9e comme une menace virale \u2013 origine du VIH et des virus h\u00e9morragiques \u2013 occupant une place dominante dans l\u2019imaginaire bios\u00e9curitaire n\u00e9olib\u00e9ral (Cooper, 2008 ; Wald, 2008), mais aussi origine de virus futurs toujours inconnus (Lachenal, 2015) et bien avant, dans l\u2019imaginaire colonial de la vuln\u00e9rabilit\u00e9 \u00ab blanche \u00bb (Anderson, 1996) et de la d\u00e9population du continent (Dozon, 1985), la viralit\u00e9 de l\u2019Afrique peut-elle \u00eatre r\u00e9fl\u00e9chie autrement ? La cartographie dessin\u00e9e actuellement par un acc\u00e8s in\u00e9gal aux vaccins (et son corollaire de restriction de d\u00e9placements) fait \u00e9galement \u00e9cho aux tentatives d\u2019emp\u00eacher l\u2019immigration clandestine, ce qui permet de questionner la nouveaut\u00e9 de ce ph\u00e9nom\u00e8ne de contr\u00f4le des populations&#8230;<br>En renversant l\u2019approche du virus, non pas comme menace autonome, mais comme objet dont on doit \u00ab n\u00e9gocier \u00bb la vie et la pathog\u00e9nicit\u00e9, ce num\u00e9ro invite \u00e0 penser la viralit\u00e9 \u00e0 partir de l\u2019Afrique globale. L\u2019approche est pluridisciplinaire. Il s\u2019agit d\u2019appr\u00e9hender le virus non seulement comme r\u00e9alit\u00e9 biologique, mais aussi comme objet d\u2019informations qui circulent \u00e0 son sujet ou comme lieu d\u2019enjeux qui cristallisent la relation de l\u2019Afrique au monde du point de vue de la construction du risque, des mobilit\u00e9s, de la gestion des ressources naturelles, de la production des savoirs ou encore des in\u00e9galit\u00e9s des conditions de vie et des politiques de pr\u00e9vention et de soins. Dans ce num\u00e9ro sp\u00e9cial, \u00e0 partir de l\u2019Afrique et de l\u2019objet virus, nous souhaitons penser notre rapport au vivant et au(x) monde(s) et les enjeux qu\u2019il implique \u00e0 partir des grandes th\u00e9matiques esquiss\u00e9es ci-dessous.         <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b3757cd elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b3757cd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2>L\u2019Afrique, \u00ab\u2009terre de virus\u2009\u00bb<\/h2><p>Viralit\u00e9 et Afrique sont deux notions consubstantielles dans l\u2019imaginaire occidental. D\u00e8s les premi\u00e8res interactions avec les explorateurs et administrateurs coloniaux, l\u2019Afrique appara\u00eet comme le pays des fi\u00e8vres (qu\u2019elles soient virales ou pas) et donc comme le tombeau de l\u2019homme blanc (Dozon, 1995). Les Africains vecteurs de fi\u00e8vre jaune (Pam, 2018), mais aussi de maladies non virales comme le paludisme, la trypanosomiase humaine africaine et la peste \u00e9taient repr\u00e9sent\u00e9s comme \u00ab\u2009r\u00e9servoirs \u00e0 virus\u2009\u00bb justifiant la s\u00e9gr\u00e9gation raciale des villes (M\u2019Bokolo, 1982) ainsi que des campagnes militaris\u00e9es de d\u00e9pistage, traitement, prophylaxie et d\u00e9placement des populations (Lachenal, 2015).<br>On a exp\u00e9riment\u00e9, sur des corps africains, de nouveaux vaccins viraux dont celui contre la fi\u00e8vre jaune \u2013 d\u00e9velopp\u00e9 au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal et au Nig\u00e9ria (Velmet, 2020) \u2013 et l\u2019h\u00e9patite B (Moulin, et al., 2018), ainsi que les premi\u00e8res campagnes de masse de vaccination antivariolique et contre la rougeole (Reinhardt, 2015). Alors que l\u2019exp\u00e9rimentation vaccinale continue (Moulin, 1996 ; Couderc, 2011 ; Thiongane, 2013), le continent est aussi accus\u00e9 de \u00ab r\u00e9sister \u00bb \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9radication de la polio (Yahya, 2007). La connaissance de l\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie du VIH y fait des progr\u00e8s importants, tant du point de vue biologique que socio-historique (Fassin, 2006 ; Nguyen, 2010 ; P\u00e9pin, 2011) ; le VIH2 est d\u00e9crit pour la premi\u00e8re fois \u00e0 Dakar par une \u00e9quipe dirig\u00e9e par le Pr Mboup gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 une cohorte de travailleuses du sexe constitu\u00e9e dans l\u2019h\u00e9ritage l\u00e9gislatif colonial (Gilbert, 2013).       <\/p><p>On doit cependant reconna\u00eetre que les sciences sociales et biom\u00e9dicales \u00ab d\u00e9couvrent \u00bb le plus souvent des r\u00e9alit\u00e9s que les populations connaissent depuis longtemps : in\u00e9galit\u00e9 de l\u2019exposition au risque, acc\u00e8s aux ressources \u2013 faute de vaccination ou de traitement, la rougeole et le paludisme tuent en Afrique plus qu\u2019ailleurs \u2013 ou exp\u00e9rience de la n\u00e9gociation ordinaire avec les virus et autres pathog\u00e8nes (Hayden, 2008 ; Richards, 2016). Il importe ainsi de faire \u00e9merger des th\u00e9ories du Sud (Comaroff &amp; Comaroff, 2012) et de d\u00e9cloisonner une pens\u00e9e par trop \u00ab virale \u00bb \u2013 parce que sous-tendue par des enjeux de s\u00e9curit\u00e9 sanitaire impos\u00e9s de mani\u00e8re h\u00e9g\u00e9monique par le Nord \u2013 pour penser la sant\u00e9 de mani\u00e8re holiste (Livingstone, 2005, 2013) ou encore interroger le virus comme r\u00e9v\u00e9lateur de relations complexes et dynamiques entre corps, esp\u00e8ces, savoirs et soins, en sorte de penser des \u00ab\u2009biologies locales\u2009\u00bb (Lock, 2017) dans des contextes sociohistoriques pr\u00e9cis.    <\/p><p>Les textes offerts \u00e0 la lecture posent tous en filigrane la question de l\u2019agenda de la sant\u00e9 globale \u2013 souvent con\u00e7ue ailleurs, mais lourde de cons\u00e9quences pour ce qui se sait et se fait sur le continent \u2013 mais aussi de sa remise en question et de ses subtiles ou radicales transformations par des acteurs africains. \u00ab Observ\u00e9s \u00bb ethnographiquement ou se pronon\u00e7ant lors d\u2019entretiens, experts, soignants et malades posent la question de ce qui compte vraiment sur et pour le continent (Kleinman, 2006), et la mani\u00e8re dont la recherche et l\u2019action en sant\u00e9 peuvent \u00eatre v\u00e9ritablement africaines dans l\u2019ar\u00e8ne de la sant\u00e9 globale. L\u2019injonction \u00e0 vacciner \u00ab la plan\u00e8te \u00bb contre un virus pand\u00e9mique, Sars-Cov-2, a mis en relief la position de l\u2019Afrique et des Africains vis-\u00e0-vis de la distribution in\u00e9gale des bien m\u00e9dicaux et des capacit\u00e9s \u00e0 les produire.<br>Mais les rapports de pouvoir \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle globale sont \u00e9galement r\u00e9v\u00e9l\u00e9s par les contraintes ayant entour\u00e9 l\u2019approvisionnement de l\u2019Afrique en vaccins, notamment ceux devant \u00eatre utilis\u00e9s d\u2019urgence \u2013 pour des raisons mat\u00e9rielles ou politiques \u2013 comme nous le rappelle Abdoulaye Tour\u00e9, sans v\u00e9ritable d\u00e9bat ou d\u00e9cision sur les conditions, fondements et objectifs de cette vaccination, ou encore sa place parmi d\u2019autres priorit\u00e9s de sant\u00e9 telles que le maintien des activit\u00e9s de routine du Programme \u00e9largi de vaccination (PEV), les d\u00e9c\u00e8s maternels, \u00ab l\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie \u00bb silencieuse de maladies non transmissibles (comme le diab\u00e8te, les maladies cardio-vasculaires).<br>Les revendications et rejets \u00ab populaires \u00bb du vaccin contre la Covid \u2013 objet d\u2019\u00ab anxi\u00e9t\u00e9s vaccinales \u00bb \u2013 sont aussi, en Afrique, ancr\u00e9s dans des dynamiques de pouvoir \u00e0 multiples \u00e9chelles, parmi lesquelles les relations \u00e0 l\u2019\u00c9tat et entre les \u00c9tats, qui conditionnent leur distribution (Leach et al<em>.,<\/em> 2022). Une question se pose sur la gestion du temps long, puisque des programmes de suivi des mutations g\u00e9n\u00e9tiques du Sars-Cov-2 sur le continent africain sont mis en place alors que l\u2019acc\u00e8s aux vaccins \u2013 pourtant produits \u00e0 partir de cette surveillance \u2013 n\u2019y est pas encore garanti.      <\/p><h2>Questionner l\u2019anthropoc\u00e8ne<\/h2><p>\u00c0 partir du Wuhan, la Covid-19 s\u2019est impos\u00e9e \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle plan\u00e9taire. Les pays du Nord ont d\u00e9couvert qu\u2019ils \u00e9taient vuln\u00e9rables aux virus et qu\u2019il fallait s\u00e9rieusement anticiper les menaces \u00e0 venir. Sur la base d\u2019extrapolation \u00e0 partir de 380 nouveaux virus identifi\u00e9s chez les chauves-souris, le programme Predict (Reducing Pandemic Risk, Promoting Global Health) a estim\u00e9 entre 360 000 et 460 000 le nombre de nouvelles esp\u00e8ces de virus biologiques \u00e0 d\u00e9couvrir. La pression sur les \u00e9cosyst\u00e8mes pour diverses activit\u00e9s intensives d\u2019extraction ou de production interf\u00e8re avec les cycles naturels de microorganismes, enzootiques ou sylvatiques, qui, pour certains, n\u2019ont que peu, voire jamais, \u00e9t\u00e9 expos\u00e9s aux humains. En bouleversant les \u00e9cosyst\u00e8mes, en particulier forestiers, les communaut\u00e9s humaines courent le risque d\u2019un contact avec les pathog\u00e8nes des esp\u00e8ces animales qui y vivent. Selon JeanFran\u00e7ois Gu\u00e9gan, la destruction \u00e0 grande \u00e9chelle des for\u00eats \u00e0 travers le monde, notamment en Afrique, entra\u00eene une cohabitation accrue entre les animaux sauvages, les animaux d\u2019\u00e9levage et l\u2019\u00eatre humain ; ou, pour le dire autrement, les \u00ab humains se sont rapproch\u00e9s des microbes \u00bb et des virus engendrant un \u00e9veil de cycles microbiens naturels peu ou jamais expos\u00e9s aux humains (Gu\u00e9gan, Thiosy et al<em>.,<\/em> 2018 ; Gu\u00e9gan, 2020). Ainsi, les for\u00eats tropicales et \u00e9quatoriales, boulevers\u00e9es par l\u2019activit\u00e9 humaine, constituent de futures bombes biologiques invitant \u00e0 s\u2019inscrire aujourd\u2019hui dans une approche One health.<br>Mais le virus ne rel\u00e8ve plus du vivant uniquement et ne porte plus seulement atteinte \u00e0 l\u2019int\u00e9grit\u00e9 des corps, il attaque les dispositifs techniques et technologiques, s\u2019immisce dans les modes de traitement, transmission et sauvegarde des informations, y compris les donn\u00e9es personnelles\u2026 Vivant ou non vivant, surgissant de mani\u00e8re souvent inattendue, il s\u2019impose et doit \u00eatre pris en compte.<br>Le n\u00e9ologisme \u00ab anthropoc\u00e8ne \u00bb s\u2019est impos\u00e9 pour signifier la capacit\u00e9 de l\u2019humanit\u00e9, par ses activit\u00e9s, \u00e0 supplanter les facteurs naturels et modifier la trajectoire de l\u2019\u00e9cosyst\u00e8me. Comme le souligne Michel Magny, si l\u2019impact de l\u2019activit\u00e9 humaine sur les milieux naturels atteint effectivement une ampleur sans pr\u00e9c\u00e9dent, qui fait aujourd\u2019hui la singularit\u00e9 de l\u2019\u00e9poque anthropoc\u00e8ne, ses racines nous interrogent sur notre esp\u00e8ce et ses relations avec les autres vivants, dont les virus (Magny, 2021).           <\/p><p>Tout en reconnaissant l\u2019impact de l\u2019anthropoc\u00e8ne, on pourrait adopter une approche plus critique. Faut-il ainsi accepter le discours de la pression humaine alors qu\u2019en R\u00e9publique de Guin\u00e9e, les travaux de James Fairhead et Melissa Leach (1995a, 1995b) montrent que, depuis les ann\u00e9es 2000, la population peuplant la for\u00eat a diminu\u00e9 (notamment en raison de l\u2019ins\u00e9curit\u00e9 li\u00e9e aux incursions rebelles venues de Sierra Leone) ? Que Jacques P\u00e9pin (2011) a bien montr\u00e9, en prenant l\u2019exemple du VIH, que la circulation du virus \u00e9tait moins li\u00e9e \u00e0 l\u2019exploitation de la for\u00eat en tant que telle qu\u2019aux politiques coloniales urbaines (s\u00e9gr\u00e9gation) et sanitaires ? Et qu\u2019enfin les r\u00e9centes \u00e9pid\u00e9mies d\u2019\u00c9bola (R\u00e9publique d\u00e9mocratique du Congo et Guin\u00e9e) ne sont pas zoonotiques, mais d\u2019origine humaine (Keita et al.,) ?<br>La notion de \u00ab capitaloc\u00e8ne \u00bb propos\u00e9e par Jason Moore permet d\u2019aller plus loin encore en soulignant l\u2019importance des logiques extractivistes, des rapports in\u00e9gaux et de l\u2019accumulation \u2013 \u00e0 la fois capitaliste et colonisatrice \u2013 qui caract\u00e9rise, en m\u00eame temps, la relation \u00e0 l\u2019environnement \u00ab naturel \u00bb et entre les humains (Moore, 2017, 2018). Selon cette conception, l\u2019\u00e9cologie est toujours \u00e9conomique et politique.<br>Outre les r\u00e9flexions philosophiques sur les multiples fronts que dessine l\u2019anthropoc\u00e8ne \u2013 r\u00e9chauffement du climat, r\u00e9duction de la biodiversit\u00e9, pollution g\u00e9n\u00e9ralis\u00e9e de l\u2019environnement, emprise extensive des humains sur les \u00e9cosyst\u00e8mes et, pression d\u00e9mographique \u2013 en termes de menace virale et son anticipation sur le continent africain, ce num\u00e9ro sp\u00e9cial a voulu accueillir des articles documentant, \u00e0 travers des \u00e9tudes de cas, la biographie et la trajectoire \u2013 et leurs repr\u00e9sentations \u2013 de zoonoses ou de virus sp\u00e9cifiques, d\u2019animaux, vers les humains, de la for\u00eat vers la ville.      <\/p><h2>Circulations<\/h2><p>En effet, outre la d\u00e9forestation, qui engendre des circulations de micro-organismes entre esp\u00e8ces, l\u2019accroissement de la population urbaine et de la taille des villes dans les r\u00e9gions intertropicales expose \u00e0 des dangers microbiologiques nouveaux, plus importants et plus fr\u00e9quents. Ces villes abritent \u00e9galement les populations d\u00e9munies les plus vuln\u00e9rables \u00e0 la menace virale (Gu\u00e9gan, 2020). Selon l\u2019Organisation des Nations unies (ONU), 2,5 milliards de personnes suppl\u00e9mentaires vivront dans les zones urbaines d\u2019ici 2050. Or, au Nord, plusieurs travaux \u00e9tablissent un lien entre les risques sanitaires, le bien-\u00eatre, la sant\u00e9 mentale et l\u2019am\u00e9nagement des villes. L\u2019urbanisation anarchique et non contr\u00f4l\u00e9e des villes africaines provoque des probl\u00e8mes d\u2019ins\u00e9curit\u00e9 et de violence, d\u2019in\u00e9galit\u00e9s (environnementales ou sanitaires), d\u2019assainissement et de pollution atmosph\u00e9rique, et joue un r\u00f4le dans l\u2019incidence des maladies transmissibles et non transmissibles (Mboumba, 2007 ; Barry, 2014 ; AFD, 2015 ; Fourchard, 2018 ; Ongo Nkoa &amp; Song, 2019).   <\/p><p>L\u2019environnement des (bidon)villes en Afrique est ainsi per\u00e7u comme un terreau d\u2019inventivit\u00e9 et de cr\u00e9ativit\u00e9 (Louveau, 2013 ; Mbade S\u00e8ne, 2018) en m\u00eame temps qu\u2019un couvoir d\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mies virales du fait de la promiscuit\u00e9 et de la densit\u00e9 des populations, de malaise et de mal-\u00eatre (Giulia, 2021). Autour de l\u2019objet virus, il faudrait aussi interroger la circulation des virus, des menaces virales, la transmission\/contagion, mais aussi la pr\u00e9vention et l\u2019anticipation du risque d\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mies \u00e0 travers l\u2019usage de l\u2019intelligence artificielle pour envisager les possibles, l\u2019analyse de cartes interactives pour suivre et documenter la trajectoire de la menace et son emprise, la mise en place de rituels ou de diverses techniques du corps pour se prot\u00e9ger, etc. <\/p><p>Elle interroge la circulation du vivant sous ses diff\u00e9rentes formes et par diff\u00e9rents m\u00e9diums \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle globale, ainsi que la fabrication des microorganismes virulents ou att\u00e9nu\u00e9s in situ ou dans des laboratoires, \u00e0 des fins de pr\u00e9vention ou de (bio) terrorisme. Ainsi, si la r\u00e9cente pand\u00e9mie de Covid-19 nous a r\u00e9v\u00e9l\u00e9 notre \u00ab socle biologique commun insensible \u00e0 toute condition sociale et toute appartenance culturelle \u00bb (Garapon, 2020) ; les in\u00e9galit\u00e9s infrastructurelles et la fracture num\u00e9rique persistent. D\u2019ailleurs, la th\u00e8se d\u2019un accident de laboratoire devient de plus en plus s\u00e9rieuse pour expliquer l\u2019origine de l\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie.  <\/p><p>L\u2019absence de contribution portant sur les travaux men\u00e9s au laboratoire et sur les diagnostics doit \u00eatre soulign\u00e9e. Les approches relevant des Science &amp; Technology Studies (STS) sont encore tr\u00e8s timides (Dumoulin Kervran et al., 2018) sur le continent et, lorsqu\u2019elles sont avanc\u00e9es, c\u2019est le fait le plus souvent de chercheurs du Nord (Peterson, 2014 ; Tousignant, 2018). Le d\u00e9veloppement rapide de centres de recherche sur le continent permettra aux chercheurs de s\u2019en saisir comme objet sociologique.  <\/p><h2>R\u00e9gimes d\u2019exception, protestations<\/h2><p>La menace virale, quand elle passe du risque \u00e0 une r\u00e9alit\u00e9 \u00e9pid\u00e9mique dans une configuration spatiotemporelle sp\u00e9cifique, vient souvent r\u00e9v\u00e9ler ou donne \u00e0 voir des processus de violence structurelle, de racisme ou d\u2019apartheid incorpor\u00e9s (Fassin, 2004 ; Farmer, 2005). Mettant \u00e0 nu des crises ant\u00e9rieures, des ressentiments accumul\u00e9s (Garapon, 2020), la pr\u00e9sence ou l\u2019effet viral peut \u00eatre envisag\u00e9 comme une r\u00e9miniscence : les corps se souviennent (Fassin, 2006). Les r\u00e9ponses peuvent alors \u00eatre lues comme des \u00ab moments d\u2019exception \u00bb pouvant durer, marqu\u00e9es ici ou l\u00e0 par une \u00ab suspension de temps ou de l\u00e9galit\u00e9 propre \u00e0 chaque domaine \u00bb, ou de \u00ab prescription m\u00e9dicale g\u00e9n\u00e9ralis\u00e9e \u00bb \u00e0 l\u2019ensemble d\u2019une population (Garapon, 2020), renfor\u00e7ant le pouvoir des r\u00e9gimes autoritaires et les nationalismes, avec des risques de protestations ou d\u2019opposition forte lorsque surviennent des \u00ab moments de v\u00e9rit\u00e9 \u00bb \u00e0 la suite des \u00ab moments d\u2019exception \u00bb (Garapon, 2020).   <\/p><p>On peut alors organiser des fronti\u00e8res physiques ou symboliques entre les populations, rel\u00e9guant certains groupes \u00e0 la marge ou \u00e0 la p\u00e9riph\u00e9rie par des strat\u00e9gies diverses : enfermer ou tuer des porteurs potentiellement dangereux pour pr\u00e9server, prot\u00e9ger les corps sains, encercler, contenir l\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie pour la juguler comme on l\u2019a vu \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9poque coloniale (Lyons, 1985, 1992) ou pendant les r\u00e9centes \u00e9pid\u00e9mies (VIH, \u00c9bola, etc.). De m\u00eame, la marginalisation, la rel\u00e9gation peuvent conduire \u00e0 des manifestations de protestations prenant la forme de revendications pour des formes de citoyennet\u00e9 sp\u00e9cifiques : citoyennet\u00e9 th\u00e9rapeutique, \u00e9cocitoyennet\u00e9, citoyennet\u00e9 mondiale ou globale, etc. Nous avons voulu proposer des textes analysant les moments et r\u00e9gimes d\u2019exception mis en place dans le contexte africain pour faire face \u00e0 la menace virale ou \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie, de m\u00eame que les protestations qu\u2019elles ont engendr\u00e9es. Ce num\u00e9ro sp\u00e9cial introduit ainsi des r\u00e9flexions sur les in\u00e9galit\u00e9s et les formes de marginalit\u00e9s que d\u00e9voile l\u2019objet virus quand il s\u2019attaque aux esp\u00e8ces, les formes de stigmatisations, de protestations qui \u00e9mergent dans le sillage de la gestion des risques de contamination pendant les moments d\u2019exception.   <\/p><h2>Virus, g\u00e9opolitique, production des savoirs<\/h2><p>Le virus interroge la production, la circulation des savoirs, de l\u2019information, des dispositifs techniques et technologiques, ainsi que la capacit\u00e9 des \u00c9tats \u00e0 faire face \u00e0 la menace virale (biologique ou informatique) ou \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie, qu\u2019il s\u2019agisse de l\u2019acc\u00e8s aux mol\u00e9cules, la s\u00e9curisation des fronti\u00e8res, la s\u00e9curit\u00e9 informatique, l\u2019h\u00e9bergement ou la protection des donn\u00e9es personnelles dans une datasph\u00e8re vuln\u00e9rable aux cyberattaques, etc. L\u2019objet virus, quand il s\u2019applique \u00e0 ces domaines, pourrait fournir d\u2019autres grilles de lecture de la g\u00e9opolitique \u00e0 partir du continent africain o\u00f9, sur fond d\u2019aide humanitaire, politiques de sant\u00e9, etc., les pays du Nord d\u00e9ploient diff\u00e9rentes strat\u00e9gies pour acc\u00e9der aux corps afin de mener des essais th\u00e9rapeutiques (Petryna, 2009), avoir acc\u00e8s aux \u00e9cosyst\u00e8mes, \u00e0 la faune, etc. On assiste alors \u00e0 une forme de colonisation, non plus des corps humains, mais du vivant, des mati\u00e8res et mat\u00e9riaux \u00e0 fort potentiel \u00e9conomique ou \u00e9pid\u00e9mique, qui pourraient devenir la base d\u2019une guerre virtuelle ou d\u2019une attaque bioterroriste. Ainsi, l\u2019Afrique pourrait \u00eatre pens\u00e9e comme un terrain d\u2019affrontements r\u00e9els, possibles ou virtuels, autour de la circulation du vivant intra et interesp\u00e8ces, de la pr\u00e9vention et de l\u2019anticipation de la menace virale et \u00e9pid\u00e9mique \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle globale.<br>Ce num\u00e9ro accueille des contributions qui analysent, sur la base de donn\u00e9es empiriques et d\u2019\u00e9tudes de cas solides, la mani\u00e8re dont l\u2019objet virus redessine la g\u00e9opolitique \u00e0 partir de l\u2019Afrique, tout en cr\u00e9ant un continent \u00e9voluant \u00e0 diff\u00e9rentes vitesses (Brown et al<em>.,<\/em> 2012). Enfin, les virus nous invitent \u00e0 interroger la mort et la \u00ab vie \u00bb biologique, ainsi que les \u00e9tats interm\u00e9diaires, lorsque le virus n\u2019est pas mort, mais reste inactif et que la vie biologique et sociale se d\u00e9roule dans un registre de normalit\u00e9, au moins en apparence. Elle invite \u00e0 interroger les repr\u00e9sentations et les sens donn\u00e9s \u00e0 l\u2019irruption soudaine d\u2019un virus, notamment sur la mort et la mortalit\u00e9 massive qu\u2019il peut engendrer dans un contexte o\u00f9 les usages num\u00e9riques sont trac\u00e9s en temps r\u00e9el (d\u00e9placements, interactions) pour des fins de marketing, de surveillance, de contr\u00f4le, de r\u00e9pression, de sanction (Sadin, 2015, 2016 ; Douzet, 2020) ou de pr\u00e9vention (mise \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9cart en attente d\u2019un test n\u00e9gatif ou positif).      <\/p><h2>D\u00e9senclaver l\u2019Afrique<\/h2><p>La vie des virus et leurs atteintes aux corps biologiques et sociaux divergent au Nord et au Sud : face aux virus, nous ne sommes pas \u00e9gaux. Les moyens de pr\u00e9vention tout comme ceux permettant de r\u00e9pondre \u00e0 la contagion ob\u00e9issent \u00e0 des logiques sp\u00e9cifiques aux contextes et sont in\u00e9galement r\u00e9partis. Ainsi, quand bien m\u00eame un \u00e9v\u00e9nement \u00e9pid\u00e9mique s\u2019imposerait \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle plan\u00e9taire, les contraintes impos\u00e9es aux d\u00e9placements, aux interactions, l\u2019hyper circulation d\u2019informations (\u00ab infod\u00e9mie \u00bb), mais aussi la vitesse avec laquelle les industries pharmaceutiques peuvent produire des mol\u00e9cules d\u00e9voilent la g\u00e9ographie des in\u00e9galit\u00e9s. En cons\u00e9quence, si nous vivons tous avec des virus, les termes de la n\u00e9gociation avec ces derniers varient en fonction de facteurs g\u00e9ographiques, technologiques, \u00e9conomiques. La notion de \u00ab local biologies \u00bb (Lock &amp; Kaufert, 2001) a rappel\u00e9 utilement en quoi le corps \u00e9tait, au-del\u00e0 de la biologie, le produit de l\u2019histoire et du contexte \u00e9conomique et social. De ce fait, notre rapport au virus est forc\u00e9ment local. Ce local est cependant lui-m\u00eame travaill\u00e9 par des paradigmes instables (Giles-Vernick &amp; Webb, 2013). Au cours des deux derni\u00e8res d\u00e9cennies, nous sommes pass\u00e9s d\u2019une approche de la sant\u00e9 internationale qui s\u2019est voulue globale \u2013 global health \u2013 \u00e0 une approche qui se veut d\u00e9sormais int\u00e9gr\u00e9e One health. Cela n\u2019emp\u00eache pas la mise en place de formes de r\u00e9ponses h\u00e9g\u00e9moniques, autoritaires souvent violentes. Dans ce contexte, l\u2019Afrique est souvent pens\u00e9e comme le si\u00e8ge de la menace virale \u00e0 contenir. Comme mentionn\u00e9 plus haut, de la trypanosomiase humaine africaine au paludisme, du sida \u00e0 \u00c9bola, l\u2019Afrique est toujours apparue comme une terre de risques.<br>Avec la Covid-19, les repr\u00e9sentations ont sembl\u00e9 s\u2019inverser dans un premier temps : pendant quelques mois, l\u2019Occident a \u00e9t\u00e9 une menace pour l\u2019Afrique. Toutefois, l\u2019absence de capacit\u00e9 vaccinale vient de nouveau installer le continent comme si\u00e8ge de menaces virales. Dans ce num\u00e9ro sp\u00e9cial, nous souhaitons penser la longue dur\u00e9e du rapport entre l\u2019Afrique et les virus eu \u00e9gard \u00e0 d\u2019autres exp\u00e9riences, mais \u00e9galement analyser le regard que porte l\u2019Occident sur le continent. D\u00e9passant l\u2019objet biologique virus, il nous faut aussi nous interroger sur la viralit\u00e9 des repr\u00e9sentations qui circulent sur le continent africain \u2013 autrefois pens\u00e9 comme le \u00ab tombeau de l\u2019homme blanc \u00bb (Dozon, 1995) \u2013 et sur le continent europ\u00e9en, qui appara\u00eet non plus en tant qu\u2019eldorado, mais comme \u00ab tombeau de l\u2019homme noir \u00bb du fait de diff\u00e9rentes strat\u00e9gies relevant de la \u00ab n\u00e9cropolitique \u00bb (Mbembe, 2006).             <\/p><p>L\u2019appel \u00e0 contributions a \u00e9t\u00e9 diffus\u00e9 au moment o\u00f9 les populations, \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9chelle du continent, \u00e9taient confront\u00e9es \u00e0 des mesures s\u00e9v\u00e8res, impos\u00e9es parfois dans le cadre d\u2019un \u00ab \u00e9tat d\u2019urgence \u00bb sanitaire li\u00e9 \u00e0 la pand\u00e9mie de Covid-19. Il n\u2019est donc pas surprenant que celle-ci soit au c\u0153ur de la majorit\u00e9 des contributions, abordant la th\u00e9matique des \u00ab circulations \u00bb, des \u00ab r\u00e9gimes d\u2019exception, de protestation \u00bb, de la \u00abproduction des savoirs\u00bb, etc., \u00e0 partir de diff\u00e9rents angles, tous originaux. Ainsi, George Rouamba et ses coauteurs mettent en \u00e9vidence une reconfiguration des rapports de citoyennet\u00e9 \u00e0 partir de l\u2019analyse des repr\u00e9sentations de la Covid-19 chez des commer\u00e7ants au Burkina Faso qui va aboutir \u00e0 une banalisation de la pathologie sur les march\u00e9s et des r\u00e9sistances aux mesures barri\u00e8res. Mohammed Far\u00e8s note \u00e9galement les r\u00e9sistances et contestations aux mesures barri\u00e8res en Tunisie en illustrant comment la r\u00e9sistance sert de pr\u00e9texte \u00e0 des revendications de libert\u00e9, de dignit\u00e9 et d\u2019emploi. \u00c0 celles-ci, le contexte pand\u00e9mique a conduit certains citoyens \u00e0 demander l\u2019\u00e9galit\u00e9 des soins m\u00e9dicaux et des interventions \u00e9cologiques (notamment la d\u00e9sinfection des espaces publics pour lutter contre la propagation du virus), mais aussi l\u2019invalidation de la carte administrative, et en particulier la notion de \u00ab chef-lieu \u00bb, qui consacre la pr\u00e9\u00e9minence de certaines r\u00e9gions par rapport \u00e0 d\u2019autres. Gassim Sylla mobilise pour sa part des donn\u00e9es ethnographiques collect\u00e9es en Guin\u00e9e pour d\u00e9voiler les repr\u00e9sentations instables de la Covid-19, les d\u00e9calages entre les mesures sanitaires et les conditions de vie des acteurs sociaux. Son texte souligne l\u2019inapplicabilit\u00e9 de mesures de pr\u00e9vention et la n\u00e9gation des r\u00e9alit\u00e9s dans lesquelles vivent les populations. D\u00e8s lors se pose la question des logiques d\u2019affichage de ces mesures. Les politiques de distanciation sociale ou de confinement \u00e9tant inapplicables, et donc le plus souvent inappliqu\u00e9es, leur maintien doit-il \u00eatre compris \u2013 \u00e0 l\u2019instar des appels \u00e0 la vaccination compl\u00e8te de la population \u2013 comme une mise en sc\u00e8ne pour un public hors du continent, mais avec un co\u00fbt \u00e9lev\u00e9 pour les populations ?<br>La contribution de Sylvie Ayimpam et Jacky Bouju \u00e9taye ce point de vue \u00e0 partir de la R\u00e9publique d\u00e9mocratique du Congo. Ces deux auteurs mettent \u00e0 mal une gouvernance chaotique contribuant au d\u00e9ni du risque, un \u00e9tat d\u2019urgence aboutissant \u00e0 l\u2019effet inverse de celui escompt\u00e9, un \u00ab paradoxe dramatique \u00bb qui serait selon eux la cons\u00e9quence d\u2019une gouvernance \u00ab n\u00e9cropolitique \u00bb autoritaire. Approchant ce paradoxe d\u2019un autre point de vue et \u00e0 partir du contexte de la Guin\u00e9e, Fanny Attas sugg\u00e8re de d\u00e9passer les analyses mettant l\u2019accent sur les dysfonctionnements et les d\u00e9faillances pour approcher les diff\u00e9rents r\u00e9pertoires ontologiques mobilis\u00e9s par les acteurs au sein de diff\u00e9rentes chor\u00e9graphies qu\u2019il s\u2019agit alors de d\u00e9crypter. Ce d\u00e9cryptage peut \u00eatre consid\u00e9r\u00e9 comme une mani\u00e8re de repenser autrement la production de savoirs sur l\u2019Afrique \u00e0 partir de l\u2019Afrique, et indirectement la place de l\u2019Afrique dans les imaginaires, y compris scientifiques. C\u2019est, dans une certaine mesure, le projet entrepris par \u00c9boko et ses coauteurs \u00e0 propos de l\u2019expansion de l\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie de Covid-19 en Afrique, qui partent de l\u2019analyse des hypoth\u00e8ses scientifiques qui seront invalid\u00e9es par les faits.                Les auteurs opposent aux \u00ab fausses pistes \u00bb les r\u00e9sultats de recherches sur le climat, qu\u2019ils consid\u00e8rent comme \u00ab un des rares domaines \u00e0 survivre aux d\u00e9terminants de la Covid-19 en Afrique, que les intuitions fond\u00e9es sur les passifs et le pass\u00e9 des pand\u00e9mies ont propos\u00e9 tous azimuts \u00bb.<\/p><p>Pour prolonger cette r\u00e9flexion sur la place de l\u2019Afrique dans les imaginaires et les productions scientifiques, les rubriques, Champ, Contre-champ et Red\u00e9couverte font intervenir trois acteurs de la sant\u00e9 internationale sur le continent africain, qui, \u00e0 partir des retours sur la \u00ab fabrique des ripostes \u00bb face aux \u00e9pid\u00e9mies ou la production des savoirs, mettent en exergue les victoires, les d\u00e9fis et les difficult\u00e9s d\u2019une science sur le Sud produite dans les Suds, en d\u2019autres termes la d\u00e9colonisation de la production des savoirs et de l\u2019expertise. Les exemples donn\u00e9s par le professeur Ibrahima Soc\u00e9 Fall montrent, entre autres, que les interventions de sant\u00e9 en contexte \u00e9pid\u00e9mique sont, d\u2019une certaine fa\u00e7on, d\u00e9colonis\u00e9es, et qu\u2019il convient aux acteurs africains de davantage valoriser cette \u00ab d\u00e9colonisation \u00bb, car \u00ab personne ne viendra le faire \u00e0 leur place \u00bb.<br>Si les pratiques et les interventions en situation d\u2019urgence peuvent \u00eatre dirig\u00e9es \u00e0 partir des Suds pour les Suds, la production des savoirs depuis l\u2019\u00e9nonc\u00e9 des objets et priorit\u00e9s de recherche restent domin\u00e9s par des int\u00e9r\u00eats \u00e9trangers au continent. Le Pr Abdoulaye Tour\u00e9 rel\u00e8ve que la recherche tarde \u00e0 devenir africaine, car elle reste d\u00e9pendante de financements ext\u00e9rieurs associ\u00e9s \u00e0 des agendas souvent opaques, orient\u00e9s vers des priorit\u00e9s qui ne co\u00efncident pas toujours avec les enjeux locaux et que cette situation aboutit \u00e0 une forme de \u00ab d\u00e9figuration \u00bb des agendas et pratiques de recherche. Adama Aly Pam apporte quelques \u00e9l\u00e9ments pour comprendre cet enracinement de la d\u00e9pendance des pays africains et la d\u00e9colonisation difficile de la production des savoirs en revisitant l\u2019histoire institutionnelle de l\u2019implantation de la m\u00e9decine en Afrique de l\u2019Ouest, et au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal en particulier, ses pratiques et le r\u00f4le des french doctors dans la naissance, le cheminement et la diffusion des savoirs de la m\u00e9decine tropicale dans l\u2019espace colonial fran\u00e7ais en Afrique.        <\/p><p>Si les sciences r\u00e9sistent \u00e0 la d\u00e9colonisation, les arts plastiques quant \u00e0 eux offrent une ouverture f\u00e9conde pour penser et d\u00e9coloniser savoirs et corps en les articulant aux mondes urbains. Dans la rubrique \u00ab Le fil iconographique \u00bb, \u00e0 partir du corps en tant que \u00ab point de contact entre l\u2019homme et le monde \u00bb, \u00c9lise Fitte-Duval aborde la question de la \u00ab d\u00e9saugmentation \u00bb et de l\u2019ali\u00e9nation. Sa r\u00e9flexion s\u2019articule \u00e0 celle de Yasmine Belhadi, historienne de l\u2019art, qui montre que les \u0153uvres de l\u2019artiste franco-gabonaise Myriam Mihindou \u2013 en particulier la vid\u00e9o La Robe envol\u00e9e (2008) et la s\u00e9rie photographique D\u00e9choucaj\u2019 (2004-2006) \u2013 peuvent \u00eatre envisag\u00e9es comme des moyens de gu\u00e9rir de blessures individuelles et collectives, comme des espaces de d\u00e9sali\u00e9nation. De cette fa\u00e7on, Myriam Mihindou produit une \u00ab esth\u00e9tique du care \u00bb d\u00e9coloniale, dont la mise en \u0153uvre est \u00ab un acte politique au potentiel critique et th\u00e9rapeutique \u00bb.   <\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2d9184d e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-child\" data-id=\"2d9184d\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a7fd8c3 ignoretoc elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a7fd8c3\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Les auteurs<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-38b0172 ignoretoc elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-link-in-bio\" data-id=\"38b0172\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"link-in-bio.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio e-link-in-bio\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image e-link-in-bio__identity-image-profile has-style-circle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Frederic-Le-Marcis--225x300.png\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image-element\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Frederic-Le-Marcis--225x300.png 225w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Frederic-Le-Marcis-.png 276w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bio\">\n\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"e-link-in-bio__heading\">Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Le Marcis<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"e-link-in-bio__title\">Professeur d\u2019anthropologie sociale\n\n\n\n\n\n<\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"e-link-in-bio__description\">D\u00e9part. des sciences sociales de l\u2019Ecole normale sup\u00e9rieure de Lyon, IRD \/ UMI 233 TransVIHMI \n<\/p>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icons has-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon is-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a aria-label=\"Email\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-link\" href=\"mailto:frederic.lemarcis@ens-lyon.fr?subject=Contact%20from%20GA%20Bio\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-svg\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-envelope\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__ctas has-type-button\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/frederic-le-marcis\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener \" class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta is-type-button has-corners-rounded\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta-text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tVoir le profil complet\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-16eb66e ignoretoc elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-link-in-bio\" data-id=\"16eb66e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"link-in-bio.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio e-link-in-bio\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image e-link-in-bio__identity-image-profile has-style-circle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" width=\"199\" height=\"265\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Noemi-Tousignant-.webp\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image-element\" alt=\"\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bio\">\n\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"e-link-in-bio__heading\">No\u00e9mi Tousignant<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"e-link-in-bio__title\">Anthropologue et historienne des sciences et de la sant\u00e9 publique\n\n<\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"e-link-in-bio__description\">DEST, Facult\u00e9 des math\u00e9matiques et des sciences physiques, London\u2019s Global University, UK,\n\n<\/p>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icons has-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon is-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a aria-label=\"Email\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-link\" href=\"mailto:n.tousignant@ucl.ac.uk?subject=Contact%20from%20GA%20Bio\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-svg\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-envelope\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__ctas has-type-button\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/noemi-tousignant\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener \" class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta is-type-button has-corners-rounded\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta-text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tVoir le profil complet\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e0eaa3e ignoretoc elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-widget elementor-widget-link-in-bio\" data-id=\"e0eaa3e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"link-in-bio.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio e-link-in-bio\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image e-link-in-bio__identity-image-profile has-style-circle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Josiane-Tantchou--225x300.png\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__identity-image-element\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Josiane-Tantchou--225x300.png 225w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Josiane-Tantchou-.png 248w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bio\">\n\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"e-link-in-bio__heading\">Josiane Tantchou<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"e-link-in-bio__title\">Anthropologue, charg\u00e9e de recherche au CNRS\n\n<\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"e-link-in-bio__description\">Unit\u00e9 mixte de recherche Les Afriques dans le Monde (LAM)\n<\/p>\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icons has-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon is-size-small\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<a aria-label=\"Email\" class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-link\" href=\"mailto:josiane-carine.tantchou@cnrs.fr?subject=Contact%20from%20GA%20Bio\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__icon-svg\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-envelope\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__ctas has-type-button\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"\/authors\/josiane-tantchou\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener \" class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta is-type-button has-corners-rounded\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"e-link-in-bio__cta-text\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\tVoir le profil complet\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-link-in-bio__bg-overlay\"><\/div>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ca44f9b ignoretoc elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ca44f9b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">\u00c9galement dans ce num\u00e9ro<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-08ab0bf elementor-grid-1 elementor-grid-tablet-1 elementor-grid-mobile-1 elementor-posts--thumbnail-top elementor-posts--show-avatar elementor-card-shadow-yes elementor-posts__hover-gradient elementor-widget elementor-widget-posts\" data-id=\"08ab0bf\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_columns&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:27,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_columns_tablet&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_columns_mobile&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_laptop&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_tablet_extra&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_mobile_extra&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;posts_cards_pp_authors_row_gap_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"posts.posts_cards_pp_authors\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-posts-container elementor-posts elementor-posts--skin-posts_cards_pp_authors elementor-grid\" role=\"list\">\n\t\t\t\t<article class=\"elementor-post elementor-grid-item post-15271 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-revue author-global-africa\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__card\">\n\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail__link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/numero-10-global-africa-savoirs-protecteurs-savoir-proteger\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\"><div class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1200\" height=\"1200\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Issue-10-\u2013-Global-AfricaProtective-Knowledges-The-Wisdom-to-Protect-.webp\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-15268\" alt=\"\" \/><\/div><\/a>\n\t\t        <div class=\"elementor-post__avatar\">\n            <img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/>        <\/div>\n        \t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__text\">\n\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-post__title\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/numero-10-global-africa-savoirs-protecteurs-savoir-proteger\/\" target=&quot;_blank&quot;>\n\t\t\t\tNum\u00e9ro 10 \u2013 Global Africa\u00ab Savoirs protecteurs, savoir prot\u00e9ger \u00bb\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\n\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/numero-10-global-africa-savoirs-protecteurs-savoir-proteger\/\" aria-label=\"En savoir plus sur Num\u00e9ro 10 \u2013 Global Africa\u00ab Savoirs protecteurs, savoir prot\u00e9ger \u00bb\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\tRead More \u00bb\t\t<\/a>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__meta-data\">\n\t\t\t        <span class=\"elementor-post-author\">\n\t\t\tGlobal Africa\t\t<\/span>\n        \t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/article>\n\t\t\t\t<article class=\"elementor-post elementor-grid-item post-15509 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-analyses-critiques author-karine-collette-fr author-ibrahima-ba-fr\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__card\">\n\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail__link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/terre-mere-trace-discursive-dune-emancipation-ecologique-au-nord-et-au-sud\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\"><div class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"527\" height=\"752\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.19.41.png\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-14990\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.19.41.png 527w, https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.19.41-210x300.png 210w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 527px) 100vw, 527px\" \/><\/div><\/a>\n\t\t        <div class=\"elementor-post__avatar\">\n            <img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/><img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/>        <\/div>\n        \t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__text\">\n\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-post__title\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/terre-mere-trace-discursive-dune-emancipation-ecologique-au-nord-et-au-sud\/\" target=&quot;_blank&quot;>\n\t\t\t\tTerre-M\u00e8re : trace discursive d\u2019une \u00e9mancipation \u00e9cologique au Nord et au Sud ?\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\n\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/terre-mere-trace-discursive-dune-emancipation-ecologique-au-nord-et-au-sud\/\" aria-label=\"En savoir plus sur Terre-M\u00e8re : trace discursive d\u2019une \u00e9mancipation \u00e9cologique au Nord et au Sud ?\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\tRead More \u00bb\t\t<\/a>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__meta-data\">\n\t\t\t        <span class=\"elementor-post-author\">\n\t\t\tKarine Collette, Ibrahima Ba\t\t<\/span>\n        \t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/article>\n\t\t\t\t<article class=\"elementor-post elementor-grid-item post-15517 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-champ author-cheikh-sadibou-sakho-fr author-masengesho-kamuzinzi-fr\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__card\">\n\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail__link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/we-heal-together-un-savoir-protecteur-par-excellence-qui-sinspire-de-lheritage-africain-ou-les-responsabilites-envers-soi-et-envers-autrui-sont-indissociables\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\"><div class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"527\" height=\"752\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.18.04.webp\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-14982\" alt=\"\" \/><\/div><\/a>\n\t\t        <div class=\"elementor-post__avatar\">\n            <img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Cheikh-Sadibou-Sakho-.webp' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Cheikh-Sadibou-Sakho-.webp' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/><img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/>        <\/div>\n        \t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__text\">\n\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-post__title\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/we-heal-together-un-savoir-protecteur-par-excellence-qui-sinspire-de-lheritage-africain-ou-les-responsabilites-envers-soi-et-envers-autrui-sont-indissociables\/\" target=&quot;_blank&quot;>\n\t\t\t\t\u00ab We Heal Together \u00bb, un savoir protecteur par excellence qui s\u2019inspire de l\u2019h\u00e9ritage africain, o\u00f9 les responsabilit\u00e9s envers soi et envers autrui sont indissociables\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\n\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/we-heal-together-un-savoir-protecteur-par-excellence-qui-sinspire-de-lheritage-africain-ou-les-responsabilites-envers-soi-et-envers-autrui-sont-indissociables\/\" aria-label=\"En savoir plus sur \u00ab We Heal Together \u00bb, un savoir protecteur par excellence qui s\u2019inspire de l\u2019h\u00e9ritage africain, o\u00f9 les responsabilit\u00e9s envers soi et envers autrui sont indissociables\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\tRead More \u00bb\t\t<\/a>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__meta-data\">\n\t\t\t        <span class=\"elementor-post-author\">\n\t\t\tCheikh Sadibou Sakho, Masengesho Kamuzinzi\t\t<\/span>\n        \t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/article>\n\t\t\t\t<article class=\"elementor-post elementor-grid-item post-15523 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-analyses-critiques author-cheikh-sadibou-sakho-fr author-ndeye-laity-ndiaye-fr\" role=\"listitem\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__card\">\n\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail__link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/it-takes-a-village-reinventer-la-mise-a-labri-des-survivantes-de-violences-sexuelles-au-senegalpistes-a-partir-de-lexperience-du-centre-kullimaaroo-de-ziguinchor\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\"><div class=\"elementor-post__thumbnail\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"527\" height=\"752\" src=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/06\/Capture-decran-2025-06-27-a-19.17.22.webp\" class=\"attachment-full size-full wp-image-14992\" alt=\"\" \/><\/div><\/a>\n\t\t        <div class=\"elementor-post__avatar\">\n            <img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Cheikh-Sadibou-Sakho-.webp' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/04\/Cheikh-Sadibou-Sakho-.webp' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/><img alt='' src='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' srcset='https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Global-Africa.jpg' class='multiple_authors_guest_author_avatar avatar' height='128' width='128'\/>        <\/div>\n        \t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__text\">\n\t\t\t\t<h4 class=\"elementor-post__title\">\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/it-takes-a-village-reinventer-la-mise-a-labri-des-survivantes-de-violences-sexuelles-au-senegalpistes-a-partir-de-lexperience-du-centre-kullimaaroo-de-ziguinchor\/\" target=&quot;_blank&quot;>\n\t\t\t\tIt Takes a Village! (R\u00e9)inventer la mise \u00e0 l\u2019abri des survivantes de violences sexuelles au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal<br>Pistes \u00e0 partir de l\u2019exp\u00e9rience du centre Kullimaaroo de Ziguinchor\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t<\/h4>\n\t\t\n\t\t<a class=\"elementor-post__read-more\" href=\"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/it-takes-a-village-reinventer-la-mise-a-labri-des-survivantes-de-violences-sexuelles-au-senegalpistes-a-partir-de-lexperience-du-centre-kullimaaroo-de-ziguinchor\/\" aria-label=\"En savoir plus sur It Takes a Village! (R\u00e9)inventer la mise \u00e0 l\u2019abri des survivantes de violences sexuelles au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal&lt;br&gt;Pistes \u00e0 partir de l\u2019exp\u00e9rience du centre Kullimaaroo de Ziguinchor\" tabindex=\"-1\" target=\"_blank\">\n\t\t\tRead More \u00bb\t\t<\/a>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-post__meta-data\">\n\t\t\t        <span class=\"elementor-post-author\">\n\t\t\tCheikh Sadibou Sakho, Nd\u00e8ye La\u00efty Ndiaye\t\t<\/span>\n        \t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/article>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e590199 e-con-full e-flex wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"e590199\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3dd1381 elementor-widget elementor-widget-eael-adv-tabs\" data-id=\"3dd1381\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"eael-adv-tabs.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t        <div data-scroll-on-click=\"no\" data-scroll-speed=\"300\" id=\"eael-advance-tabs-3dd1381\" class=\"eael-advance-tabs eael-tabs-horizontal eael-tab-auto-active  responsive-vertical-layout\" data-tabid=\"3dd1381\">\n            <div class=\"eael-tabs-nav \">\n                <ul class=\"eael-tab-inline-icon\" role=\"tablist\">\n                                            <li id=\"pour-citer-larticle-\" class=\"active-default eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"true\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"pour-citer-larticle--tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <i class=\"fas fa-quote-left\"><\/i>                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Pour citer l&rsquo;article :<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"notes\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"notes-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <i class=\"fas fa-notes-medical\"><\/i>                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Notes<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                                            <li id=\"bibliographie\" class=\"inactive eael-tab-item-trigger eael-tab-nav-item\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"bibliographie-tab\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n                            \n                                                                <i class=\"fas fa-book\"><\/i>                                                            \n                                                            <span class=\"eael-tab-title title-after-icon\" >Bibliographie<\/span>                            \n                                                    <\/li>\n                    \n                                  <\/ul>\n            <\/div>\n            \n            <div class=\"eael-tabs-content\">\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"pour-citer-larticle--tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item active-default\" data-title-link=\"pour-citer-larticle--tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <h5>APA<\/h5>\n<p>Le Marcis, F., Tousignant, N., Tantchou, J.C. (2022). L&rsquo;Afrique et le monde \u00e0 l&rsquo;heure virale : donner vie au virus et faire vivre la viralit\u00e9.<em> Global Africa, 2<\/em>, pp. 30-38. <u><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/pr6g-ky78\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/pr6g-ky78<\/a><\/u> <\/p>\n<h5>MLA<\/h5>\n<p>Le Marcis et al. \u00ab L&rsquo;Afrique et le monde \u00e0 l&rsquo;heure virale : donner vie au virus et faire vivre la viralit\u00e9 \u00bb.<em> Global Africa, <\/em>no. 2, 2022, p. 30-38. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/pr6g-ky78\">doi.org\/10.57832\/pr6g-ky78<\/a> <\/p>\n<h5>DOI<\/h5>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/pr6g-ky78\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57832\/pr6g-ky78<\/a><\/p>\n<p>\u00a9 2022 by author(s). This work is openly licensed via CC BY-NC 4.0 <\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"notes-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"notes-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <ol>\n<li>Voir par exemple Afroscreen : https: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.pasteur.fr\/fr\/institut-pasteur\/institut-pasteur-monde\/actualites-international\/afroscreen-renforcer-surveillance-variants-13-pays-afrique\">https:\/\/www.pasteur.fr\/fr\/institut-pasteur\/institut-pasteur-monde\/actualites-international\/afroscreen-renforcer-surveillance-variants-13-pays-afrique<\/a>, Voir par exemple Afroscreen: <a href=\"https:\/\/africacdc.org\/institutes\/ipg\/\">https:\/\/africacdc.org\/institutes\/ipg\/<\/a> (consult\u00e9 le 21 novembre 2021).<\/li>\n<li>Predict is a project of the Emerging Pandemic Threat (EPT) program of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), launched in 2009 to strengthen the detection and discovery of zoonotic viruses with high pandemic potential.<\/li>\n<li>Voir par exemple: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.theelephant.info\/op-eds\/2020\/05\/15\/returning-the-gaze-how-covid-19-is-inverting-colonialimaginaries\/\">https:\/\/www.theelephant.info\/op-eds\/2020\/05\/15\/returning-the-gaze-how-covid-19-is-inverting-colonialimaginaries\/<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t        \n                    <div id=\"bibliographie-tab\" class=\"clearfix eael-tab-content-item inactive\" data-title-link=\"bibliographie-tab\">\n\t\t\t\t        <p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">AFD. (2015). Cadre d\u2019intervention : sant\u00e9 et protection sociale 2015-2019, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">AFD<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Anderson, W. (1996). Immunities of empire: Race, disease, and the new tropical medicine, 1900\u20131920.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Bulletin of the History of Medicine<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">70<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(1), 94-118.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Auray, N., &amp; Keck, F. (2015). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Virus<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">  . Association Terrain, (No. 64, pp. 4-13) URL : <\/span><a href=\"http:\/\/terrain.revues.org\/15561\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">http:\/\/terrain.revues.org\/15561<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. <\/span> <\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Barry, A. (2014). Version f\u00e9minine du malaise juv\u00e9nile dans les villes africaines. R\u00e9flexions cliniques et anthropologiques autour d\u2019un nouveau \u00abph\u00e9nom\u00e8ne social 1\u00bb.   <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Essaim<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(33), 91-105.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Brives, C. (2020). The politics of Amphibiosis: the war against viruses will not take place.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Somatosph\u00e8re: Science, Medicine, and Anthropology. <\/span><\/i><a href=\"http:\/\/somatosphere.net\/2020\/the-politics-of-amphibiosis.html\/\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">http:\/\/somatosphere.net\/2020\/the-politics-of-amphibiosis.html\/<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Brown, T., Craddock, S., &amp; Ingram, A. (2016). Critical Interventions in Global Health: Governmentality, Risk, and Assemblage.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Annales of the Association of American Geographers<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">102<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(5), 1182-1189.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Comaroff, J., &amp; Comaroff, J. L. (2015). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Theory from the South: Or, how Euro-America is Evolving Toward Africa<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Routledge.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">COOPER, M. (2008). Life as Surplus: Biotechnology and Capitalism in the Neoliberal Era, Seattle.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">University of Washington Press<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Couderc, M. (2011). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Enjeux et pratiques de la recherche m\u00e9dicale transnationale en Afrique : analyse anthropologique d&rsquo;un centre de recherche clinique sur le VIH \u00e0 Dakar (S\u00e9n\u00e9gal)<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Th\u00e8se de doctorat, Universit\u00e9 Aix-Marseille III, 506 p.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Douzet, F. (2020). Du cyberespace \u00e0 la datasph\u00e8re. Enjeux strat\u00e9giques de la r\u00e9volution num\u00e9rique.   <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">H\u00e9rodote<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">2<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(177-178), 3-15.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Dozon, J. P. (1985). Quand les Pastoriens traquaient la maladie du sommeil.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sciences sociales et sant\u00e9<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">3<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(3), 27-56.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Dozon, J. P. (1995). D\u2019un tombeau \u00e0 l\u2019autre.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cahiers d\u2019\u00e9tudes africaines<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">XXXI<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(1-2, 121-122), 136-157.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Dumoulin Kervran, D., Kleiche-Dray, M., &amp; Quet, M. (2018). Going South. How STS could think science in and with the South?. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tapuya: Latin American Science, Technology and Society<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(1), 280-305.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Fairhead, J., &amp; Leach, M. (1995a). Reading forest history backwards: The interaction of policy and local land use in Guinea&rsquo;s forest-savanna mosaic, 1893-1993.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Environment and History<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">1<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(1), 55-91.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Fairhead, J., &amp; Leach, M. (1995b). False forest history, complicit social analysis: rethinking some West African environmental narratives.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">World development<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">23<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(6), 1023-1035.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Farmer, P. (2004). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pathologies of power: Health, human rights, and the new war on the poor<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> (Vol. 4). University of California Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Fassin, D. (2004). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Afflictions. L&rsquo;Afrique du Sud, de l&rsquo;apartheid au sida <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Karthala.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Fassin, D. (2006). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Quand les corps se souviennent: exp\u00e9riences et politiques du sida en Afrique du Sud<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. La D\u00e9couverte.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Fourchard, L. (2018). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Trier, exclure et policer. Vies urbaines en Afrique du Sud et au Nigeria <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Sciences Po (Les Presses de).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Garapon, A. (2020). Un moment d\u2019exception.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Esprit<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, (5), 87-92.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gilbert, H. (2013). Re-visioning local biologies: HIV-2 and the pattern of differential valuation in biomedical research.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Medical anthropology<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">32<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(4), 343-358.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Giles-Vernick, T., &amp; Webb Jr, J. L. (Eds.). (2013).  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Global health in Africa: historical perspectives on disease control<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Ohio University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Giulia, G. (2021). Bamako war ikna: Kel Tamasheq, Bamako and the politics of wellbeing.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tantchou, J., Louveau, F., Marc-\u00c9ric, G., Bien-\u00eatre au Nord et au Sud: explorations, Louvain-la-Neuve, Academia<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Graboyes, M. (2015). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The experiment must continue: Medical research and ethics in East Africa, 1940\u20132014<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Ohio University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gu\u00e9gan, J. F. (2020). Virus : quand les activit\u00e9s humaines s\u00e8ment la pand\u00e9mie.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The conversation<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Gu\u00e9gan, J. F., Thoisy, B. D., Ayouba, A., &amp; Cappelle, J. (2018). For\u00eats tropicales, changements d&rsquo;usage des sols et risques infectieux \u00e9mergents. <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Hayden, C. E. (2008). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Of medicine and statecraft: smallpox and early colonial vaccination in French West Africa (Senegal-Guinea)<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Northwestern University.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Keita, A. K., Koundouno, F. R., Faye, M., D\u00fcx, A., Hinzmann, J., Diallo, H., &#8230; &amp; Magassouba, N. F. (2021). Resurgence of Ebola virus in 2021 in Guinea suggests a new paradigm for outbreaks.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Nature<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">597<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(7877), 539-543. doi: 10.1038\/s41586-021-03901-9<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Kleinman, A. (2006). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">What really matters: Living a moral life amidst uncertainty and danger<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Oxford University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lachenal, G., &amp; Geissler, P. W. (2015). Lessons in medical nihilism. Virus hunters, neoliberalism and the AIDS crisis in Cameroon.   <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Para-states and medical science: Making African global health<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, 103-41.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Latour, B. (2020). La crise sanitaire incite \u00e0 se pr\u00e9parer \u00e0 la mutation climatique.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Le Monde<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">25 march<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Leach, M., MacGregor, H., Akello, G., Babawo, L., Baluku, M., Desclaux, A., &amp; Sow, K. (2022). Vaccine anxieties, vaccine preparedness: perspectives from Africa in a Covid-19 era.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Social science &amp; medicine<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">298<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, 114826. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.114826\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.114826<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Livingston, J. (2005). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Debility and the moral imagination in Botswana<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Indiana University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Livingston, J. (2013). Cancer in the shadow of the AIDS epidemic in southern Africa.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The oncologist<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">18<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(7), 783-786. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1634\/theoncologist.2013-0215\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1634\/theoncologist.2013-0215<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. <\/span> <\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lock, M. (2017). Recovering the body.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Annual Review of Anthropology<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">46<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, 1-14. <\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-anthro-102116-041253\"><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev-anthro-102116-041253<\/span><\/a><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lock, M., &amp; Kaufert, P. (2001). Menopause, local biologies, and cultures of aging.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">American journal of human biology<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">13<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(4), 494-504.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Louveau, F. (2013). Sukyo Mahikari et la qu\u00eate du bonheur: un mouvement religieux japonais en Afrique de l\u2019Ouest et en France.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cahier de l\u2019institut Religioscope, <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">http:\/\/religion. info\/french\/articles\/article_632.shtml.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lowe, C. (2017). Viral ethnography: Metaphors for writing life.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">RCC Perspectives<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, (1), 91-96.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lyons, M. (1985). From \u2018Death Camps\u2019 to Cordon Sanitaire: The Development of Sleeping Sickness Policy in the Uele District of the Belgian Congo, 1903\u201319141.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Journal of African History<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">26<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(1), 69-91.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Lyons, M. (1992). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The colonial disease: a social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900-1940<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Cambridge University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Magny, M. (2021). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">L\u2019Anthropoc\u00e8ne<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Presses universitaires de France.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Mbembe, A. (2006). N\u00e9cropolitique 1.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Raisons politiques<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, (1), 29-60.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">M&rsquo;bokolo, E. (1982). Peste et soci\u00e9t\u00e9 urbaine \u00e0 Dakar: l&rsquo;\u00e9pid\u00e9mie de 1914 (The Plague and Urban Society in Dakar: The 1914 Epidemic).  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Cahiers d&rsquo;\u00e9tudes africaines<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, 13-46.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Mboumba, A. (2007). Gestion urbaine et \u00e9quit\u00e9 socio-spatiale: les in\u00e9galit\u00e9s dans les services de base \u00e0 Libreville (Gabon).  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Espace g\u00e9ographique<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">36<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(2), 131-140.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Moore, J. W. (2017). The Capitalocene, Part I: on the nature and origins of our ecological crisis.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Journal of peasant studies<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">44<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(3), 594-630.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Moore, J. W. (2018). The Capitalocene Part II: accumulation by appropriation and the centrality of unpaid work\/energy.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The Journal of Peasant Studies<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">45<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(2), 237-279.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Moulin, A. M. (1996). L\u2019aventure de la vaccination, collection Penser la m\u00e9decine.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Editions Fayard<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> <\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Moulin, A. M. (2014). Quand la terre s\u2019 arrondit. L\u2019horizon convergent des \u00e9pid\u00e9mies d\u2019Orient et d\u2019Occident.   <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Extr\u00eame-Orient Extr\u00eame-Occident<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">37<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, 233-240.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Moulin, A. M., Chabrol, F., &amp; Ouvrier, A. (2018). 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Duke University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Ongo Nkoa, B. E., &amp; Song, J. S. (2019). Urbanisation et in\u00e9galit\u00e9s en Afrique : une \u00e9tude \u00e0 partir des indices d\u00e9sagr\u00e9g\u00e9s.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Revue d\u2019\u00e9conomie r\u00e9gionale &amp; urbaine<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, (3), pp. 447-484.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Packard, R. M. (2016). A history of global health: interventions into the lives of other peoples.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Baltimore, MD.<\/span><\/i><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pam, A. A. (2018). Colonisation et sant\u00e9 au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal, 1816-1960 : crises \u00e9pid\u00e9miques, contr\u00f4le social et \u00e9volution des id\u00e9es m\u00e9dicales.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Colonisation et sant\u00e9 au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal, 1816-1960<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, 1-264.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pepin, J. (2011). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The origins of AIDS<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Cambridge University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Peterson, K. (2014). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Speculative markets: Drug circuits and derivative life in Nigeria<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Duke University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Petryna, A. (2009). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">When experiments travel: clinical trials and the global search for human subjects<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Princeton University Press<\/span><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Quammen, D. (2012). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Spillover: animal infections and the next human pandemic<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. WW Norton &amp; Company.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Reinhardt, B. H. (2015). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">The end of a global pox: America and the eradication of smallpox in the Cold War era<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. UNC Press Books.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Richards, P. (2016). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Ebola: how a people&rsquo;s science helped end an epidemic<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Bloomsbury Publishing.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sadin, E. (2015). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">La vie algorithmique. Critique de la raison num\u00e9rique <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. L\u2019\u00e9chapp\u00e9e.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Sadin, E. (2016). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">La silicolonisation du monde : l\u2019irr\u00e9sistible expansion du lib\u00e9ralisme num\u00e9rique<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. L\u2019\u00e9chapp\u00e9e.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">S\u00e8ne, A. M. (2018). L\u2019urbanisation de l\u2019Afrique: davantage de bidonvilles ou des villes intelligentes ?. <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Population &amp; Avenir<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, (4), pp. 14-16.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Thiongane, O. (2013). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Anthropologie de la m\u00e9ningite au Niger. Espaces \u00e9pid\u00e9miques, mobilisations scientifiques et conceptions de la maladie <\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\"> (Doctoral dissertation, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS)).<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Tousignant, N. (2018). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Edges of Exposure: toxicology and the problem of capacity in postcolonial Senegal<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Duke University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Velmet, A. (2020). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Pasteur&rsquo;s empire: Bacteriology and politics in France, its colonies, and the world<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Oxford University Press, USA.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Wald, P. (2008). <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Contagious: Cultures, carriers, and the outbreak narrative<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">. Duke University Press.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">Yahya, M. (2007). Polio vaccines\u2014\u201cno thank you!\u201d barriers to polio eradication in Northern Nigeria.  <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">African Affairs<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">, <\/span><i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">106<\/span><\/i><span style=\"font-weight: 400\">(423), 185-204.<\/span><\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n\t\t                    <\/div>\n        <\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<div data-particle_enable=\"false\" data-particle-mobile-disabled=\"false\" class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5aff930 e-flex e-con-boxed wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"5aff930\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"e-con-inner\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-fc34b86 elementor-widget elementor-widget-off-canvas\" data-id=\"fc34b86\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" 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NUM\u00c9RO PDF Abstract R\u00e9sum\u00e9 Muhtasari \u0645\u0644\u062e\u0635 \/\/\/ \/\/\/ \/\/\/ \/\/\/ \u00c0 la fin de l\u2019ann\u00e9e 2019, le nouveau coronavirus (SarsCov-2) s\u2019est rapidement propag\u00e9, mettant en exergue la densit\u00e9 plan\u00e9taire des r\u00e9seaux de mobilit\u00e9 humaine et informationnelle. Il s\u2019est \u00ab associ\u00e9 \u00bb (Latour, 2020) de mani\u00e8re tr\u00e8s diff\u00e9rente, selon les pays, quartiers ou foyers, \u00e0 des dispositifs de d\u00e9tection, de prise en charge et de contr\u00f4le, mais aussi \u00e0 des march\u00e9s du travail et de denr\u00e9es \u00ab essentiels \u00bb, ou \u00e0 des relations, formelles ou familiales, d\u2019\u00e9change, d\u2019obligation et de care. Le virus est, d\u2019un point de vue biologique, une entit\u00e9 liminaire et relationnelle, viable, mais non vivante hors des cellules d\u2019un autre organisme.Il \u00ab prend vie \u00bb non par l\u2019attaque virale, mais lorsque son h\u00f4te entre en relation avec lui (Napier, 2012 ; Brives, 2020), ce qui conduit \u00e0 la question de savoir comment on fait vivre le virus et la viralit\u00e9. La question du virus appelle une r\u00e9flexion multidimensionnelle et selon plusieurs \u00e9chelles. Elle est \u00e0 la fois biosociale et \u00e9cosociale. Biosociale, elle \u00e9voque les relations spatiales et sociales de la transmission virale et celles qui donnent \u00ab virulence \u00bb \u00e0 l\u2019infection (Lowe, 2017). \u00c9cosociale, elle invite \u00e0 penser \u00e9galement les relations entre esp\u00e8ces et habitats qui pourraient faire \u00ab \u00e9merger \u00bb de nouveaux virus, elles-m\u00eames indissociables des \u00e9conomies extractives globales. La question du virus appelle aussi une r\u00e9flexion \u00e9pist\u00e9mologique \u2013 par quels modes de savoirs et de d\u00e9tection fait-on entrer le virus dans les relations sociales et politiques \u2013 reconfigurant ainsi des modalit\u00e9s ant\u00e9rieures d\u2019incorporation et de gestion de la maladie, et une r\u00e9flexion socioculturelle \u2013 la viralit\u00e9 que l\u2019on fait vivre par les r\u00e9cits sur les agents pathog\u00e8nes et les \u00e9closions \u00e9pid\u00e9miques (Wald, 2008 ; Quammen, 2015), ainsi que par les m\u00e9taphores (les virus informatiques, mais aussi les migrants et les \u00e9trangers comme vecteurs viraux). Le continent africain a ainsi longtemps \u00e9t\u00e9 pens\u00e9 comme terrain de latence et d\u2019\u00e9mergence virale (Auray &amp; Keck, 2015). L\u2019exp\u00e9rience plan\u00e9taire de la pand\u00e9mie de Covid-19 nous invite \u00e0 repenser l\u2019Afrique dans le monde, et le monde \u00e0 partir de l\u2019Afrique. Longtemps pens\u00e9e comme une menace virale \u2013 origine du VIH et des virus h\u00e9morragiques \u2013 occupant une place dominante dans l\u2019imaginaire bios\u00e9curitaire n\u00e9olib\u00e9ral (Cooper, 2008 ; Wald, 2008), mais aussi origine de virus futurs toujours inconnus (Lachenal, 2015) et bien avant, dans l\u2019imaginaire colonial de la vuln\u00e9rabilit\u00e9 \u00ab blanche \u00bb (Anderson, 1996) et de la d\u00e9population du continent (Dozon, 1985), la viralit\u00e9 de l\u2019Afrique peut-elle \u00eatre r\u00e9fl\u00e9chie autrement ? La cartographie dessin\u00e9e actuellement par un acc\u00e8s in\u00e9gal aux vaccins (et son corollaire de restriction de d\u00e9placements) fait \u00e9galement \u00e9cho aux tentatives d\u2019emp\u00eacher l\u2019immigration clandestine, ce qui permet de questionner la nouveaut\u00e9 de ce ph\u00e9nom\u00e8ne de contr\u00f4le des populations&#8230;En renversant l\u2019approche du virus, non pas comme menace autonome, mais comme objet dont on doit \u00ab n\u00e9gocier \u00bb la vie et la pathog\u00e9nicit\u00e9, ce num\u00e9ro invite \u00e0 penser la viralit\u00e9 \u00e0 partir de l\u2019Afrique globale. L\u2019approche est pluridisciplinaire. Il s\u2019agit d\u2019appr\u00e9hender le virus non seulement comme r\u00e9alit\u00e9 biologique, mais aussi comme objet d\u2019informations qui circulent \u00e0 son sujet ou comme lieu d\u2019enjeux qui cristallisent la relation de l\u2019Afrique au monde du point de vue de la construction du risque, des mobilit\u00e9s, de la gestion des ressources naturelles, de la production des savoirs ou encore des in\u00e9galit\u00e9s des conditions de vie et des politiques de pr\u00e9vention et de soins. Dans ce num\u00e9ro sp\u00e9cial, \u00e0 partir de l\u2019Afrique et de l\u2019objet virus, nous souhaitons penser notre rapport au vivant et au(x) monde(s) et les enjeux qu\u2019il implique \u00e0 partir des grandes th\u00e9matiques esquiss\u00e9es ci-dessous. L\u2019Afrique, \u00ab\u2009terre de virus\u2009\u00bb Viralit\u00e9 et Afrique sont deux notions consubstantielles dans l\u2019imaginaire occidental. D\u00e8s les premi\u00e8res interactions avec les explorateurs et administrateurs coloniaux, l\u2019Afrique appara\u00eet comme le pays des fi\u00e8vres (qu\u2019elles soient virales ou pas) et donc comme le tombeau de l\u2019homme blanc (Dozon, 1995). Les Africains vecteurs de fi\u00e8vre jaune (Pam, 2018), mais aussi de maladies non virales comme le paludisme, la trypanosomiase humaine africaine et la peste \u00e9taient repr\u00e9sent\u00e9s comme \u00ab\u2009r\u00e9servoirs \u00e0 virus\u2009\u00bb justifiant la s\u00e9gr\u00e9gation raciale des villes (M\u2019Bokolo, 1982) ainsi que des campagnes militaris\u00e9es de d\u00e9pistage, traitement, prophylaxie et d\u00e9placement des populations (Lachenal, 2015).On a exp\u00e9riment\u00e9, sur des corps africains, de nouveaux vaccins viraux dont celui contre la fi\u00e8vre jaune \u2013 d\u00e9velopp\u00e9 au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal et au Nig\u00e9ria (Velmet, 2020) \u2013 et l\u2019h\u00e9patite B (Moulin, et al., 2018), ainsi que les premi\u00e8res campagnes de masse de vaccination antivariolique et contre la rougeole (Reinhardt, 2015). Alors que l\u2019exp\u00e9rimentation vaccinale continue (Moulin, 1996 ; Couderc, 2011 ; Thiongane, 2013), le continent est aussi accus\u00e9 de \u00ab r\u00e9sister \u00bb \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9radication de la polio (Yahya, 2007). La connaissance de l\u2019\u00e9pid\u00e9mie du VIH y fait des progr\u00e8s importants, tant du point de vue biologique que socio-historique (Fassin, 2006 ; Nguyen, 2010 ; P\u00e9pin, 2011) ; le VIH2 est d\u00e9crit pour la premi\u00e8re fois \u00e0 Dakar par une \u00e9quipe dirig\u00e9e par le Pr Mboup gr\u00e2ce \u00e0 une cohorte de travailleuses du sexe constitu\u00e9e dans l\u2019h\u00e9ritage l\u00e9gislatif colonial (Gilbert, 2013). On doit cependant reconna\u00eetre que les sciences sociales et biom\u00e9dicales \u00ab d\u00e9couvrent \u00bb le plus souvent des r\u00e9alit\u00e9s que les populations connaissent depuis longtemps : in\u00e9galit\u00e9 de l\u2019exposition au risque, acc\u00e8s aux ressources \u2013 faute de vaccination ou de traitement, la rougeole et le paludisme tuent en Afrique plus qu\u2019ailleurs \u2013 ou exp\u00e9rience de la n\u00e9gociation ordinaire avec les virus et autres pathog\u00e8nes (Hayden, 2008 ; Richards, 2016). Il importe ainsi de faire \u00e9merger des th\u00e9ories du Sud (Comaroff &amp; Comaroff, 2012) et de d\u00e9cloisonner une pens\u00e9e par trop \u00ab virale \u00bb \u2013 parce que sous-tendue par des enjeux de s\u00e9curit\u00e9 sanitaire impos\u00e9s de mani\u00e8re h\u00e9g\u00e9monique par le Nord \u2013 pour penser la sant\u00e9 de mani\u00e8re holiste (Livingstone, 2005, 2013) ou encore interroger le virus comme r\u00e9v\u00e9lateur de relations complexes<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":44,"featured_media":6437,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"elementor_header_footer","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[209],"tags":[],"issues3":[],"post_folder":[],"ppma_author":[523,525,524],"class_list":["post-10025","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-introduction-fr","author-frederic-le-marcis-fr","author-noemi-tousignant-fr","author-josiane-tantchou-fr"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v27.5 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>L&#039;Afrique et le monde \u00e0 l&#039;heure virale : donner vie au virus et faire vivre la viralit\u00e9 | Global Africa<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"L&#039;Afrique et le monde \u00e0 l&#039;heure virale : Explorer la double force des virus vitalisants et de la viralit\u00e9 vivifiante dans la sant\u00e9, 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He is a professor at the \u00c9cole Normale Sup\u00e9rieure (ENS) of Lyon and a member of the Triangle laboratory (UMR 5206). He is currently on leave as a research director at the French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development (IRD) within the TransVIHMI laboratory (UMI 233), and assigned to the Centre for Research and Training in Infectiology of Guinea (CERFIG). His research focuses on the long-term perspectives and logic of risk management models, using two empirical case studies from the African continent: prisons and epidemics.","url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/author\/fredericlemarcis\/"}]}},"acf":[],"authors":[{"term_id":523,"user_id":0,"is_guest":1,"slug":"frederic-le-marcis-fr","display_name":"Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Le Marcis","avatar_url":{"url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Frederic-Le-Marcis-.png","url2x":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Frederic-Le-Marcis-.png"},"author_category":"1","exclude_author":"","main-organisation":"","country_of_org":"","field_of_work":"","first_name":"","last_name":"","user_url":"","job_title":"","description":""},{"term_id":525,"user_id":0,"is_guest":1,"slug":"noemi-tousignant-fr","display_name":"No\u00e9mi Tousignant","avatar_url":{"url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Noemi-Tousignant-.webp","url2x":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/12\/Noemi-Tousignant-.webp"},"author_category":"1","exclude_author":"","main-organisation":"","country_of_org":"","field_of_work":"","first_name":"","last_name":"","user_url":"","job_title":"","description":""},{"term_id":524,"user_id":0,"is_guest":1,"slug":"josiane-tantchou-fr","display_name":"Josiane Tantchou","avatar_url":{"url":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Josiane-Tantchou-.png","url2x":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/11\/Josiane-Tantchou-.png"},"author_category":"1","exclude_author":"","main-organisation":"","country_of_org":"","field_of_work":"","first_name":"","last_name":"","user_url":"","job_title":"","description":""}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/10025","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/44"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=10025"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/10025\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/6437"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=10025"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=10025"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=10025"},{"taxonomy":"issues3","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/issues3?post=10025"},{"taxonomy":"post_folder","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/post_folder?post=10025"},{"taxonomy":"author","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.globalafricasciences.org\/fr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/ppma_author?post=10025"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}